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CORNELL
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
GIFT OF
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Cornel
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Cornell University
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001587504
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
DIVISION OF ORNITHOLOGY AND MAMMALOGY
PRELIMINARY REPORT
ON THE
FOOD OF WOODPECKERS
BY
F. E. L. BEAL
eee
ASSISTANT ORNITHOLOGIST
THE TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS /
BY
F..A. LUCAS
Curator, DEPARTMENT COMPARATIVE ANATOMY —
-U. S. NATIONAL Museum
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1895
Bull. 7, Div, of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.
FRONTISPIECE.
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PILEATED WOODPECKER OR LoGcock (Ceophlais piledtus).
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Washington, D. C., May 15, 1895.
Siz: I have the honor to transmit, as Bulletin No.7 of this division,
a preliminary report on the Food of Woodpeckers, by Prof. F. E. L.
Beal, Assistant Ornithologist. The report is accompanied by a short
article on the ‘Tongues of Woodpeckers,’ prepared at my request by
Mr. F. A. Lucas, Curator of the Department of Comparative Anatomy,
United States National Museum.
Respectfully, ds geen =
; RT MERRIAM,
Chief of Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy.
Hon. J. STERLING Morton,
Secretary of Agriculture.
LONTEN TS.
Page,
The Food of Woodpeckers. By F.E.L. Beal.........-....--2 22-2 -222---------- 7
Geiieral-Pemarks +5: <ss0¥ po.6 ovens has Sa sae asoeeaiane ead eS Sigs e SSL Sse, vi
Table showing food percentages..........-----.----------- +2222 222s eee eee 11
Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) ......------ --+--+2--------------- 1
Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus).....-...-...------ 2-2-2202 eee eee eee 14
Plicker:(Coba ples: GUnQeis)) ccicc aie spose 8 oth ci, dsynyn yo sa nencren ees mieie ioe Socials Sa 16
Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus)......-.-.----------+- 20
Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus)....-.-..-.- Lue ae pon ear ae 25
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) ....--2+22 22200 -222eee eee eee 28
Great Pileated Woodpecker ( Ceophlaus pileatus)........----------------+--- 32
Other Woodpeckers isesccmccsnin denis eas eee pee Mem cee eee ei 33
The Tongues of Woodpeckers. By FP. A. Lucas..-....-.--.-----+--+- +--+ ------ 35
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Text figures.
Fig. 1. Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus).
2. Flicker (Colaptes auratus).
3. Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus).
4. Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Spkyrapicus varius).
Plates.
Frontispiece. Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus).
Plate I. Tongues of North American Woodpeckers.
Il. Tongues of North American Woodpeckers.
III. Tongues of North American Woodpeckers.
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
By F. E. L. Brat, Assistant Ornithologist.
GENERAL REMARKS.
With the possible exception of the crow, no birds are subject to more
adverse criticism than woodpeckers. Usually no attempt is made to
discriminate between the numerous species, and little account is taken
of the good they do in destroying injurious insects. The name ‘Sap-
sucker’ has been applied to two or three of the smaller kinds, in the
belief that they subsist to a great extent upon the juices of trees,
obtained from the small holes they make in the bark. There can be
little doubt that one species, the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker (Sphyra-
picus varius), does live to a considerable extent upon this sap. Obser-
vation does not show that other species have the same habit, but it is
a difficult point to decide by dissection, as fluid contents disappear
quickly from the stomach.
Many observers have testified to the good work these birds do in
destroying insects, while others have spoken of harm done to fruit or
grain. Both are correct within certain limits.
Field observation on the food habits of birds is attended with so
many difficulties as to render it a very unreliable source from which to
draw general conclusions. The most conscientious and careful person
is often deceived, not only as to the quantity of a particular kind of
food eaten by a bird, but as to the fact that it is eaten at all. The
further difficulty of keeping a number of birds, or even a single one,
under constant observation makes an estimate of relative proportions
of different kinds of food impossible. When much mischief is done
the fact is apparent, but there is no way to find out how much good is
done during the same time. For these reasons it often happens that
reports on food habits, based on observations of wild birds, not only
conflict with each other but also disagree with the results obtained
from stomach examinations. This last method must be taken as the
court of final appeal, and it is evident that a collection of stomachs
covering every month in the year, and as nearly as may be all points
: 7
8 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
of the birds’ range, becomes more and more trustworthy as it increases
in size; in other words, the more stomachs examined the nearer correct
will be the result as to the birds’ annual diet.
The present paper is merely a preliminary report, based on the exami-
nation of 679 stomachs of Woodpeckers, and representing only 7 spe-
cies—all from the eastern United States. These species are the Downy
Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens), the Hairy Woodpecker (D. villosus),
the Flicker or Golden winged Woodpecker (Colaptes auratus), the
Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus), the Red-bellied
Woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus), the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker
(Sphyrapicus varius), and the Great Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophloeus
pileatus). Examination of their stomachs shows that the percentage
of animal food (consisting almost entirely of insects) is greatest in
the Downy, and grades down through the Hairy, Flicker, Pileated,
Redhead, and Yellow-bellied to the Red-bellied, which takes the
smailest quantity of insects. Prof. Samuel Aughey stated that all of
these species except the Pileated (which was not present) fed upon
locusts or grasshoppers during the devastating incursions of these
insects in Nebraska. The vegetable matter, of course, stands in inverse
order. The greatest quantity of mineral matter (sand) is taken by the
Flicker, somewhat less by the Redhead, very little by the Downy and
Hairy, and none at all by the Yellow-bellied and Pileated.
The stomachs of all of the 7 species except the Redhead and Red-
bellied contained the substance designated as ‘cambium’ in the
accompanying list of vegetable food. This is the layer of mucilagi-
nous material lying just inside of the bark of trees, and from which
both bark and woed are formed. It is supposed by many to be the
main object sought by woodpeckers. Except in the case of a single
species the stomach examination does not bear out this view, since cam-
bium, if present at all, was in such sinall quantities as to be of no
practical importance. The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, however, is evi-
dently fond of this substance, for in the stomachs examined it formed
23 percent of the whole food of the year. It was foundin 37 stomachs,
most of which were taken in April and October. Of 18 stomachs col-
lected in April, 16 contained cambium, and one of the remaining con-
tained no vegetable food whatever. Moreover, as the true cambium is
a soft and easily digested substance it is probable that what is usually
found in the stomachs is only the outer and harder part, which there-
fore represents a much larger quantity. The extent of the injury done
by destroying cambium must depend on the quantity taken from indi-
vidual trees. It is well known that woodpeckers sometimes do serious
harm by removing the outer bark from large areas on the trunks of
fruit trees. The rings of punctures often seen around the trunks of
apple trees are certainly the work of the Sapsucker, though sometimes
attributed to the Downy and Hairy Woodpeckers. But the bird is not
sufficiently numerous in most parts of the country to do much damage.
GENERAL REMARKS. 9
It is a difficult task to summarize the results of the investigations
herein detailed, more especially if an attempt is made to decide as to
the comparative merits or demerits of each particular species. The
stomach examinations do not always corroborate the testimony
received from observers, and many no doubt will be inclined to think
they have seen more harm done by some members of this family of
birds than is shown by the data here published. If birds are seen
feeding repeatedly on a certain kind of food the inference is that they
are particularly fond of it, but the truth may be that they are eating
it because they can find nothing they like better, and that a collection
of their stomachs from many localities would show only a small per-
centage of this particular food.
In reviewing the results of these investigations and comparing one
species with another, without losing sight of the fact that comparative
good is not necessarily positive good, it appears that of 7 species
considered the Downy Woodpecker is the most beneficial. This is due
in part to the great number of insects it eats and in part to the nature
of its vegetable food, which is of little value to man. Three-fourths
of its food consists of insects, and few of these are useful kinds. Of
grain, 1t eats practically none. The greatest sin we can lay at its door
1s the dissemination of poison ivy.
The Hairy Woodpecker probably ranks next to the Downy in point
of usefulness. It eats fewer ants, but a relatively larger percentage
of beetles and caterpillars. Its grain-eating record is trifling; 2
stomachs taken in September and October contained corn. For fruit,
it seeks the forests and swamps, where it finds wild cherries, grapes,
and the berries of dogwood and Virginia creeper. It eats fewer seeds
of the poison ivy and poison sumac than the Downy.
The Flicker eats a smaller percentage of insects than either the
Downy or the Hairy Woodpecker, but if eating ants is to be considered
a virtue, as we have endeavored to show, then surely this bird must be
exalted, for three-fourths of all the msects it eats, comprising nearly
half of its whole food, are ants. It is accused of eating corn; how little
its stomach yields is shown on another page. Fruit constitutes about
one-fourth of its whole fare, but the bird depends on nature and not
on man to furnish the supply.
Judged by the results of the stomach examinations of the Downy
and Hairy Woodpecker and Flicker it would be hard to find three other
species of our common birds with fewer harmful qualities. Not one of
the trio shows a questionable trait, and they should be protected and
encouraged in every possible way. Fortunately, only one, the Flicker,
is hable to destruction, and for this bird each farmer and landowner
should pass a protective law of his own.
The Redhead makes the best showing of the seven species in the
kinds of insects eaten. It consumes fewer ants and more beetles than
any of the others, in this respect standing at the head, and it has a pro-
nounced taste for beetles of very large size. Unfortunately, however, its
10 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
fondness for predaceous beetles must be reckoned against it. It also
leads in the consumption of grasshoppers; these and beetles together
forming 36 percent of its whole food. The stomachs yielded enough
corn to show that it has a taste for that grain, though not enough to
indicate that any material damageis done. It eats largely of wild fruit,
and also partakes rather freely of cultivated varieties, showing some
preference for the larger ones, such as apples. In certain localities,
particularly in winter, it feeds extensively on beechnuts. No charge
can be brought against it on the score of injuring trees by pecking.
The Red-bellied Woodpecker is more of a vegetarian than any of
the others. In certain localities in Florida it does some damage to
oranges, but the habit is not genera]. On the other hand, it eats quan-
tities of ants and beetles.
The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker seems to show only one question-
able trait, that of a fondness for the sap and inner bark of trees,
Both field observations and the contents of the stomachs prove this
charge against it, but it is not probable that forest trees are exten-
sively injured, or that they ever will be, for aside from the fact that
the bark of many trees would be unpalatable an immense number of
birds would be required to do serious damage. But with fruit trees
the case is different. Their number is limited, and there are no super-
fluous ones as in the forest. In localities where the bird is abundant
considerable harm may be done to apple trees, which appear to be
pleasing to its taste.
The Pileated Woodpecker is more exclusively a forest bird than any
of the others, and its food consists of such elements as the woods
afford, particularly the larvee of wood-boring beetles, and wild fruits.
The species is emphatically a conservator of the forests.
In describing the stomach contents of the different woodpeckers a
quantity of material is classed under the term ‘rubbish. The great
bulk of this stuff is rotten wood and bark, picked up in digging for
insects in decayed timber, and apparently swallowed accidentally with
the food. Ifthe 6 woodpeckers which had eaten rotten wood are com-
pared with respect to the quantity of this material contained in the
stomachs it.is found that the Hairy Woodpecker stands at the head
with 8 percent, the Downy next with 5, the Flicker with 3, the Redhead
and Yellow-bellied with 1 percent each, and the Pileated with only a
trace. From this it appears that the Hairy Woodpecker is preeminently
a woodpecker, while the Redhead and Yellow-belly do much less of this
kind of work. The difference in habit is obvious to the most casual
observer. The Redhead is ordinarily seen upon a fence post or tele-
graph pole hunting for insects that alight on these exposed surfaces,
and watching for others that fly near enough to be captured in mid-air.
Unlike other woodpeckers, he is seldom seen digging at a rotten branch
except in spring, when 18 prepares a home for the family he intends
to rear. The Yellow-bellied, as will be shown presently, does much
wood for bark) pecking. but of another kind,
DOWNY WOODPECKER. 11
The following tables show the food percentages of the stomachs
examined:
Percentages of food of 7 species of woodpeckers.
| Percentage of
4g stomach con- Percentage of different insects.
3 tents.
3
3 @ a\|4 4 a 3
2 eo |a\ja | #48 :
Name of species. 3 Po Ors lew: bps. ed a a
g a~| 2 laea| ~f 2 3 coe
8 Fy of) s |8H| £8 aa a av
#{./2| 2 |#3| 8 |#2) 22] 2 | 5 | 2B
» |e{s| B | 2 | B |S] Be | Bs z 2
Silalei g |8 | gis | at | ga] 2 | Sg
6 jal? E| Ps 3 & ae © a= =
2Aldie | a |e |S |A fo im A | a
Downy Woodpecker (Dry- p
tac Sy el Binerminieners 140 | 74 | 25 1} 23 24 16 3 4 1 3
Hairy Woodpecker (Dryo- ’ a
bates villosus)....--.---.- 82 | 68; 31 y 17 24 21 | Trace.; | De aacisnieiee 4
Flicker (Colaptes auratus) .| 230 | 56 | 39 43 10 1 1 | Trace.' Trace. 1
Red-headed Woodpecker |
(Melanerpes erythroceph- ;
1) i 101 | 50 | 47 3 11 31 1 5 Ine porter te 1
Red-bellied Woodpecker i
(Melanerpes carolinus)...| 22 | 26 , 74 | Trace. iL 10 4) Trace. | Trace. ...-.... Trace.
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker |
(Sphyrapicus varius) ...-| 81 | 50 | 50 |.....---. 36 5 2 1 1/ 3 2
Pileated Woodpecker !
(Ocophleus pileatus).-... 23 | 51: 49 |...----. 30 15 2 | Trace. 4 Trace. | Trace.
Relative proportions of larval and adult beetles (Coleoptera) in stomachs of 7 species of
woodpeckers.
a3 Ae aa
6 ao a
$—a | 9° al Percentage of Percentage of
A Sa Sa whole number. nee et
Name of species. = Ss a yee z 3 | :
v Be | S38 | s38
a3 gas EEE Ad It. L Isa It. | Li
% 3 zw x, ult. er ult. arve.
Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) . 140 50 60 38 43 11 13
Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus) ..-. 82 27 46 33 56 | 6 18
Flicker (Colaptes awratus).....--..--------- 230 67 18 25 8 8 2
Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes ery- |
throcephalus) ..---..--------- 222-222 eee eee 101 BB Puistececros 1p eee ' BL sce.
Red-bellied Woodpecker (Melanerpes caro- | <
ULB) ai cictareermiocs aisle saininiaiminiaiase ciel eRe eines 22 6 4 27 | 18 7 3
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus
VATUUB) saseiga'aserats, sie gansta cpapers aes ate aeareigispanecciominse 81 15 1 19 1 5 | Trace.
Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophteus pileatus) 23 4 112 17 52 2
DOWNY WOODPECKER.
(Dryobates pubescens.)
This little woodpecker is the smallest, not only of the 7 species
under consideration, but of all those mhabiting the United States. He
is also one of the most familiar, being no stranger to the shade trees
about houses and parks, while his fondness for orchards is well known.
He is so quiet and unobtrusive that the first notice one has of his
presence may be a gentle tapping or scratching on the limb of a tree
within two or three yards of one’s head, where our diminutive friend
12 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
has discovered a decayed spot inhabited by wood-boring larve or a
colony of ants. ;
One hundred and forty stomachs of the Downy Woodpecker have
been examined. They were collected during every month in the year
and in 21 States, the District of Columbia, Ontario, and New Bruns-
wick. A few of the western subspecies (Dryobates pubescens gairdnert),
from British Columbia, have been included. The stomachs contained
74 percent of insects, 25 percent of vegetable matter, and 1 percent
of mineral matter or sand. The insects belong to the following orders:
Ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), bugs (Hemiptera), flies
(Diptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), aud grasshoppers (Orthoptera).
Spiders and myriapods were also present. While all of these were
eaten to some extent, they appear in widely different proportions. The
ants constitute almost one-third of all the animal food, or about 23 per
cent of the whole, indicating a very decided taste for this rather acid
and highly flavored article of diet. Beetles stand a little higher in
order of importance, amounting to about one-third of the entire insect
food, or somewhat more than 24 percent of all. Many of these belong
to the family of May beetles, a few were the predaceous ground beetles,
but by far the greatest number were wood-boring larve, a fact showing
that this little bird while securing his dinner is doing good work for
the forest. One-fifth of the animal food, or 16 percent of the total,
consists of caterpillars, many of which apparently are wood-boring
species; others are kinds that live on stems and foliage. Among insects
the most interesting are the bugs (Hemiptera), which are represented
in the stomachs by several species, notably by plant lice (Aphides),
which in several instances were found in considerable quantities,
amounting to 4 percent of the whole food. From the minute size
and very perishable nature of these insects it is evident that they
must disappear from the stomach iv a very short time, and it is fair to
infer that many more were eaten than shown by the food remains.
Spiders, including harvestmen or daddy longlegs, were eaten freely,
and amounted to nearly one-tenth of thewhole. A few bits of snail
shell were found in one stomach.
Eleven Downy Woodpeckers from Kansas collected in winter (De-
cember) deserve special notice. Eight of them had eaten the eges of
grasshoppers to an average extent of 10 percent of all their food.
This, besides being in itself a good work, emphasizes the fact that this
bird resorts to the ground for food in case of necessity.
Prof. Samuel Aughey examined 4 stomachs of the Downy Wood-
pecker in Nebraska, all of which contained grasshoppers,
The late Dr. Townend Glover, entomologist of the Department of
Agriculture, states that the stomach of a Downy Woodpecker shot in
February “was filled with black ants.” He states further, “On one
occasion a Downy Woodpecker was observed by myself making a
number of small, rough-edged perforations in the bark of a young ash
DOWNY WOODPECKER. 13
tree, and upon examining the tree when the bird had flown it was
found that wherever the bark had been injured the young larve of a
wood-eating beetle had been snugly coiled underneath and had been
destroyed by the bird.”!
In the matter of vegetable diet, the taste of the Downy Woodpecker
is varied, prompting him to eat, a little of a good many things rather
than a large quantity of anyone. The following is alist of the vegetable
substances that were identified:
Grain: Miscellaneous:
Indeterminable. Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans).
Fruit: Poison sumac seeds (Rhus vernix).
Dogwood berries (Cornus florida), (C.
alternifolia), and (C. asperifolia).
Virginia creeper berries (Partheno-
cissus? quinquefolia).
June or service berries (Amelanchier
Harmless sumac seeds (Rhus sp.?).
Mullein seeds (Verbascum thapsus).
Hornbeam seeds (Ostrya virginana).
Nut, unidentified.
Flower petals and buds.
canadensis). Galls.
Strawberries (Fragaria). Cambium.
Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra). Seeds, unidentified.
Apples. Rubbish.
Unidentified.
Material believed to be fragments of grain was found in 2 stomachs
but the quantity was so small that it may be dismissed without further
comment. Fruit is by far the largest item of vegetable diet, forming
one-tenth of the whole food. Strawberry seeds were found in only 1
stomach, apple pulp was supposed to be identified in 2, and the other
varieties mentioned in the table were distributed in about the same
proportion; so that no great economic interest can attach to this part
of the birds’ diet. The seeds and other things included under the
head ‘Miscellaneous’ constitute about one-twelfth of the total food.
Seeds of poison ivy were found in 20 stomachs and poison sumac in 1,
These plants, far from being harmful to the birds, seem to form a very
agreeable article of diet, and are eaten by many species. Unfortunately
these seeds are protected by a hard, horny covering which successfully
resists the action of the stomach, so that they pass through the ali-
mentary canal uninjured. It is probable that we owe to birds, more
than any other agency, the presence of these noxious plants beside
fences, copses, and hedge rows. The remaining vegetable food, about
5 percent, was classed as rubbish, and will be discussed in connection
with some of the other woodpeckers.
No beechnuts were found in any of the stomachs examined, but Dr.
Merriam informs me that in northern New York they feed extensively
on this nut, particularly in fall, winter, and early spring. On April 5,
1U.8. Agr. Rept. for 1865, 1866, p. 37-38.
*Commonly called Ampelopsis. See (List of Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta),
prepared by a committee of the Botanical Club of the A. A. A. 8., 1893-94, which
has been followed in all questions of botanical. nomenclature.
14 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS,
1878, Dr. Merriam “shot 4 Downy Woodpeckers all of whose gizzards
were full of beechnuts and contained nothing else. The birds were
often seen on moss-covered logs, and even on the ground, searching for
the nuts exposed by the melting snow.” Dr. Merriam states also that
he has seen this woodpecker in the fall eat the red berries of the moun-
tain ash.
HAIRY WOODPECKER.
(Dryobates villosus.)
This woodpecker is as common as the Downy in most parts of the
United States, and to the ordinary eye can only be distinguished by
its greater size, its color and markings being almost exactly the same.
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Fig. 1.—Hairy Woodpecker.
The Hairy is a noiser bird, however, often making his presence known
by loud calls and obtrusive behavior and by rapid flights from tree
to tree. Like the Downy, he has been accused of depredations on fruit,
but the stomachs examined do not show that cultivated varieties form
HAIRY WOODPECKER. 15
any considerable part of his fare. Beside the general resemblance
between the two birds there is also a remarkable similarity in their
food habits, as shown by the stomach contents; the greatest difference
being that the Hairy eats a smaller percentage of insects than the
Downy. Highty-two stomachs have been examined, collected during _.
every mouth in the year, except February; and coming from 19 States,
the District of Columbia, Ontario, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia;
though most were from the northern United States. The proportion
of different kinds of food is as. follows: Animal, 68 percent; vegeta-
ble, 31 percent; mineral, 1 percent. The insect material was made
up of ants, beetles, caterpillars, bugs, and grasshoppers. Spiders and
myriapods also were present. An inspection of the percentages shows
that ants are not so highly prized by the Hairy as by the Downy, since
they constitute only about 17 percent of the whole food, or one-fourth
of the insect portion. Beetles, both larval and adult, stand relatively
higher than in the case. of the Downy, comprising 24 percent of all
food, or more than one-third of the insect matter. Caterpillars were
eaten in greater quantities, both actually and relatively, amounting to
21 percent of the whole food, or moreethan. one-third of all the insect
material. Spiders are weil represented, and aggregate nearly 6 per
cent of the entire food. Among the miscellaneous insects were a few
aphids or plant lice. Grasshoppers were. found in, only 1 stomach,
but Professor Aughey found them in 4 out of 6 stomachs examined by
him in Nebraska.
Mr. F. M. Webster states that he has seen a Hairy*°Woodpecker suc-
cessfully peck a hole through the parchment-like covering of the cocoon
of a Cecropia moth, devouring the contents. On examining more than
20 cocoons in a grove of boxelders he found only 2 uninjured.
The Hairy Woodpecker selects a somewhat larger variety of vege-
table food than the Downy, though of the same general character.
The following list of fruits and seeds found in the stomachs does not
indicate that the bird visits orchards and gardens for fruit so much as
swamps and thickets, where wild grapes, woodbine, and dogwood
bound:
Grain: Fruit—Continued :
Corn. Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus).
Fruit: Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra).
Dogwood berries (Cornus florida and Unidentified.
C. asperifolia). Miscellaneous :
Virginia creeper berries (Partheno- Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans).
cissus quinquefolia). Poison sumac seeds (Rhus vernix).
June or service berries (Amelanchier Harmless sumac seeds (Rhus glabra).
canadensis). Barngrass seeds (Chameraphis. sp?).
Spice berries (Benzoin benzoin). Hazelnuts. ;
Sourgum berries (Nyssa aquatica). Seeds unidentified.
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina). Cambium.
Choke cherries (Prunus virginiana). Spruce foliage (Picea).
Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia). Rubbish.
16 THE FOOD OF WOOKPECKERS.
The only grain discovered was corn, which was found in 2 stom-
achs. In one case it was green corn in the milk, but this is hardly
sufficient to prove the habit of eating corn. Fruit aggregates a little
more than 11 percent of the food of the species, and is fairly distrib-
uted among all the items in the above list. Since blackberries are the
only kind of cultivated fruit found in the stomachs, and since they grow
wild in abundance, it is evident that the Hairy Woodpecker does not at
present cause any great damage by his fruit-eating habits. The sub-
stances in the miscellaneous list form about 11 percent of the whole food,
and are: practically of the same character as in the case of the Downy.
Poison ivy seeds were eaten by 7 birds, and poison sumac by only 1, so
that not so many seeds of these undesirable shrubs are distributed by
the Hairy as by'the Downy. The weed seeds in the stomachs were
few in number, but in Iowa both the Hairy and the Downy Woodpeckers
feed largely on weed seeds in winter, stomachs taken then containing
little else. Rubbish amounts.to about one-twelfth of all their food,
which is the largest percentage shown by any species.
Dr. Merriam informs.me. that in northern New York the Hairy Wood-
pecker, like the other woodpeckers of the Adirondack region, feeds
largely on beechnuts. In late fall, winter, and early spring following
good yields of beechnuts the nuts form the principal food of the
woodpeckers.
FLICKER.
(Colaptessauratus.)
This bird, one of the largest and best known of our woodpeckers, is
more migratory than either the Hairy or Downy, in winter being scarce
or absent fromr its breeding range in the Northern States, where it is
very abundant in summer and early fall. The Yellow-shafted Flicker
is distributed throughout the United States east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. In the West it is replaced by the Red-shafted Flicker, which
may be considered the same so far as food habits are concerned.
Under one or the other of its. various titles of Flicker, Golden-winged
Woodpecker, High-holder, Yellow-hammer, Pigeon Woodpecker, and
Hairy-wicket, it is. known to every farmer and schoolboy and, unfortu-
nately, to certain.so-called sportsmen also, for this is the one woodpecker
that is often seen in city markets. In most places it is a much shyer
bird than either of the preceding, and while it frequents the farm and
approaches buildings-freely it keeps more in the tops of the trees and
does not allow so near an.approach of its greatest enemy, man. This is
particularly true in the northeastern part of the country, where large
bags of Pigeon Woodpeckers are annually made among the wild cherry
trees in which the birds feed. The Flickers soon learn whom they have
to fear, and such knowledge seems to be hereditary. They are very
prolific, rearing from six to ten young at a brood, and so keep reason-
ably abundant in most parts of the country. The Flicker is the most
FLICKER. 17
terrestrial of all the woodpeckers, in spite of his high-perching and
high-nesting proclivities, and may often be seen walking about in the
grass like a meadow lark.
In the investigation of its food habits 230 stomachs were examined,
taken in every month of the year, although January and February
have but 1 each. They were collected in 22 States, the District of
Columbia, and the Northwest Territory, and are fairly well distributed
over the region east of the Rocky Mountains. They contained 56 per
cent of animal matter, 39 percent of vegetable, and 5 percent of min-
eral. It will be seen that the quantity of animal or insect material is
less than in either of the preceding species, and the mineral matter
somewhat greater. The following orders of insects were represented:
Fic, 2.—Flicker.
Ants (Hymenoptera), beetles (Coleoptera), bugs (Hemiptera), grasshop-
pers and crickets (Orthoptera), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), May flies (Ephe-
merida) and whiteants (Isoptera). Spiders and myriapodsalso were pres-
ent. An inspection of this insect matter shows the rather remarkable
fact that more than three-fourths of it, or 43 percent of the whole food,
consists of ants. If the mineral matter is thrown out as not being prop-
erly food, we find that more than 45 percent of the Flicker’s food for
the year consists of ants. Among the stomachs examined several
contained nothing but ants. In two of these the actual number of ants
present in each stomach exceeded 3,000. These were mostly small
species that live in burrows in the earth, so that it is evident that
when Flickers are seen upon the ground they are usually in search of
18269—No. 7——2
18 THE FOOD OF WUODPECKERS.
ants, although the other insects found in the stomachs account in
part for this ground-feeding habit. Prof. Samuel Aughey examined 8
stomachs of Flickers in Dixon County, Nebr., in June, 1865. All of
them contained grasshoppers, and the number in each stomach varied
from 15 to 48.
As a large part of the food of the 7 woodpeckers studied consists
of auts, the question may be asked whether the birds are doing good
or harm by destroying them. There are so many different species of
these insects, and they have such widely different habits, that it is
difficult to make any assertion that will apply to all, but it is safe to
say that many kinds are decidedly harmful, because they attend, pro-
tect, and help to spread plant, root, and bark lice of various species.
These lice are among the worst enemies of plant life, and everything
which tends to prevent their destruction is prejudicial to the interests
of agriculture. Other species of ants destroy timber by burrowing in
it; still others, in warmer climates, do much harm to fruit trees by
cutting off the leaves and undermining the ground. Many species
infest houses and other buildings. Apparently, then, birds do no harm
in destroying ants, but on the contrary probably do much good by keep-
ing within bounds these insect pests, whose greater abundance would
be a serious injury to man. The Flicker takes the lead in this work,
eating ants to the extent of nearly half of his whole food.
Next in importance to ants are beetles, which form about 10 percent
of all the food, less than half the quantity eaten by the Hairy and
Downy Woodpeckers. Among these were May beetles and their allies,
and a few snapping beetles, but the greater number were Carabids or
predaceous ground beetles. Most of these were in the adult form, but
some larvie of tiger beetles were identified. As these last live in bur-
rows in the sand, and as Carabids live upon the ground, their presence
in the stomachs again points to the terrestrial habits of the bird. The
same is true of the grasshoppers and crickets. None of the other insects
meutioned were eaten to any great extent, the whole aggregating only
about 3 percent. Two stomachs contained each a single bedbug.
Where they were obtained it is as difficult to surmise as it is to under-
stand what motive could prompt the bird to swallow such an insect.
Five stomachs contained each a few bits of snail shell.
In the matter of vegetable diet the Flicker has the most extensive
list of any of the 7 woodpeckers, and many of the articles of food
can only be obtained on the ground or among low bushes. Following
is a list of all the vegetable substances identified in the Flicker’s
stomach:
FLICKER. 19
Grain:
Corn.
Buckwheat.
Fruit:
Dogwood berries (Cornus florida and
C. asperifolia).
Virginia creeper berries (Partheno-
cissus quinquefolia).
Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis).
Black alder berries (Jlex verticillata).
Sourgum berries (Nyssa aquatica).
Cat or greenbrier berries (Smilax
glauca),
Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.).
Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.).
Pokeberries (Phytolacca decandra).
June or service berries (Amelanchier
canadensis),
Spice berries (Benzoin benzoin).
Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis and
S. pubens).
Mulberries (Morus).
Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia).
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina).
Fruit—Continued.
Blackberries (Rubus)
Unidentified.
Miscellaneous:
Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans).
Poison sumac seeds (Rhus vernix).
Harmless sumac seeds (Rhus copallina
and R. glabra).
Waxberries or bayberries (Myrica
cerifera).
Juniper berries (Juniperus virgini-
ana).
Knotweed or smartweed (Polygonum
convolvulus, P. persicaria, P. lapa-
thifolium).
Clover seed (Trifolium repens).
Grass seed (Phleum).
Pigweed seed (Chenopodium).
Mullein seed ( Verbascum thapsus).
Ragweed (Ambrosia).
Magnolia seed (Magnolia grandiflora).
Acorns (Quercus).
Seed unidentified.
Cambium.
Choke cherries (Prunus virginiana), Rubbish.
Cultivated cherries.
Of the two kinds of grain in the above list corn was identified in 5
stomachs, buckwheat in 1. Oneof the stomachs containing corn was
taken in March and the bird had made a full meal of it, probably
because he could get nothing else. Three of the others were collected
in September, and the corn was evidently ‘in the milk.’ The fifth was
taken in October, and is of a somewhat doubtful nature.
The Department of Agriculture has received a number of reports
that implicate woodpeckers in damage done to crops. The only one of
any consequence is from Dr. E. 8. C. Foster, of Russell County, Kans.,
who states that the Red-headed and Golden-winged Woodpeckers dam-
age corn in the roasting ear by tearing open the husks. He does not say
for what purpose the husks are torn open, though some observers have
declared that the object is to obtain the grub which sometimes infests
the ear. The testimony furnished by the stomachs does not indicate
that the Golden-wing has much to do with corn stealing, for it appears
: that out of 98 stomachs taken in September and October, the season of
harvest, only 4 contained corn at all, and these in quantities ranging
from 4 to 30 percent of the stomach contents. The buckwheat was
eaten in September. The Flicker has a rich and varied list of fruit,
embracing at least 20 different kinds, nearly all of which are wild.
The two items of grain and fruit together constitute about 25 per
cent of the whole food, the grain, however, being of little consequence.
With all this fruit eating, the Flicker trespassed upon man’s preserves
for cherries only, and these were found in only 1 stomach. Several
20 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
observers, however, have testified that some damage is done. T. J.
Parrish, of Cooke County, Tex., states that the Yellow-hammers and
small woodpeckers feed on peaches, plums, grapes, and cherries.
Miscellaneous vegetable substances aggregate a little more than 10
percent of the whole food of this bird, and like the fruit list, consist
of a variety of elements. Poison ivy seeds were found in 20 stomachs,
poison sumac in 5, and bayberries in 14. All these seeds are coated
with a white substance resembling wax, and while the quantity is small
compared with the size of the seeds, it is probably rich in nutritive
properties, for the seeds are a favorite article of winter diet with many
birds. A number of weed seeds were found, and if eaten in consider-
able quantities would be a great argument in the bird’s favor, but
unfortunately they occurred in only one or two stomachs each, and so
may be considered as merely picked up experimentally in default of
something better. It is possible that a series of stomachs taken in the
winter months might show a larger percentage, as has been observed
in the case of other species of birds, including at least 2 woodpeckers.
The mineral element of the stomach contents is larger in the Flicker
than any of the others, forming 5 percent of the whole, and consisting
principally of fine sand. It was noticed that the greatest quantity was
present in stomachs containing ants, showing that the sand was picked
up accidentally in gathering the ants from their hillocks..
RED-HBADED WOODPECKER.
(Melanerpes erythrocephalus.)
The handsome Redhead inhabits suitable localities throughout the
United States east of the Rocky Mountains, but is only casual in New
England. He is a familiar bird on telegraph poles and fence posts,
and seems to prefer these rather unpicturesque objects to other appar-
ently more fruitful hunting grounds. He feeds largely on insects found
upon these bare surfaces, but the vegetable matter in his stomach
shows that he forages in other pastures also.
Fifty years ago Giraud stated that on Long Island the Red-headed
Woodpecker arrives early in April, and during the spring ‘subsists
chiefly on insects. In the summer it frequents the fruit trees, ripe
cherries and pears seeming to be a favorite repast. In the fall it feeds
on berries and acorns, the latter at this season forming a large portion
of its food.”!
In its fondness for mast it resembles its relative, the California Wood-
pecker, whose habit of storing acorns is one of its most conspicuous
traits. In thenorthern part of its range,whero the oak is replaced by the
beech, the Redhead makes the beechnutits principal food. Dr. C. Hart
| Birds of Long Island, by J. P. Giraud, jr., 1844, p. 180.
RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. 21
Merriam has given much testimony under this head.! He states that
in northern New York, where it is one of the commonest woodpeckers,
it subsists almost exclusively on beechnuts during the fall and winter,
even picking the green nuts before they are ripe and while the trees
are still covered with leaves. He has shown that these woodpeckers
invariably remain throughout the winter after good nut yields and
migrate whenever the nut crop fails. He says: “ Gray Squirrels, Red-
headed Woodpeckers, and beechnuts were numerous during the winters
SSS FS SS
SSS =. at
es
fl!
Fic. 3.—Red-headed Woodpecker.
of 1871-72, 1873-74, 1875-76, 1877-78, 1879-80, 1881-82, 1883-84, while.
during the alternate years the squirrels and nuts were scarce and the
woodpeckers altogether absent;” and adds that in Lewis County,
N. ¥., ‘a good squirrel year is synonymous with a good year for
Melanerpes, and vice versa.” In early spring, following nut years, when
the melting snow uncovers the ground, they feed on the beechnuts that
were buried during winter. On April 5, 1878, at Locust Grove, N. Y.,
he shot 6 whose gizzards contained beechnuts and nothing else.
1 Birds of Connecticut, 1877, p. 66; Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. ITI, 1878, p. 124;
Mammals of the Adirondacks, 1884, p. 226.
22 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
In an interesting article in the Auk,! Mr. O. P. Hay says that in cen-
tral Indiana during a good beechnut year, from the time the nuts began
to ripen, the Redheads were almost constantly on the wing, passing
from the beeches to some place of deposit. They hid the nuts in almost
every conceivable situation. Many were placed in cavities in partly
decayed trees; and the felling of an old beech was certain to provide
a feast forthe children. Large handfuls were taken from a single knot
hole. They were often found under a patch of raised bark, and single
nuts were driven into cracks in the bark. Others were thrust into
cracks in gateposts; and a favorite place of deposit was behind long
slivers on fence posts. In a few cases grains of corn were mixed with
beechnuts. Nuts were often driven into cracks in the ends of railroad
ties; and the birds were often seen on the roofs of houses pounding
nutsinto the crevices between the shingles. In several instances the
space formed by a board springing away from a fence was nearly filled
with nuts, and afterwards pieces of bark and wood were brought and
driven over the nuts as if to hide them from poachers.
In summer Dr. Merriam has seen the Redheads “make frequent
sallies into the air after passing insects, which were almost invariably
secured.” He has also seen them catch grasshoppers on the ground in
a pasture.
Dr. A. K. Fisher saw several Red-headed Woodpeckers feeding on
grasshoppers in the streets at Miles City, Mont., in the latter part ot
July, 1893. Several of the birds were seen capturing these insects near
the hotel throughout the greater part of the forenoon. From a regu-
lar perch on top of a telegraph pole or cottonwood they descended on
their prey, sometimes eating them on the ground, but more often
returned to their former post to devour them.
The following interesting observation was made by Dr. G. 8. Agers-
borg, of Vermillion, 8. Dak. :?
Last spring, in opening a good many birds of this species with the object of ascer-
taining their principal food, I found in their stomachs nothing but young grass-
hoppers. One of them, which had its headquarters near my house, was observed
making frequent visits to an old oak post, and on examining it I found a large crack
where the woodpecker had inserted about 100 grasshoppers of all sizes (for future
use, as later observation proved), which were put in without killing them, but they
were so firmly wedged in the crack that they in vain tried to get free. I told this to
acouple of farmers, and found that they had also secn the same thing, and showed
me posts which were used for the same purpose. Later in the season the wood-
pecker whose station was near my house, commenced to use his stores, and to-day
(February 10), there are only a few shriveled-up grasshoppers left.
Mr. Charles Aldrich, of Webster City, Iowa, states that he saw a Red-
headed Woodpecker catching grasshoppers on the prairie half a mile
from timber. In Nebraska grasshoppers were found in 4 out of 6
stomachs examined by Prof. Samuel Aughey.
| Auk. Vol, EV, 1887, pp. 194,195.
2» Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. III, 1878, p. 97.
RED-HEADED WOODPECKER. 23
Besides depredations upon fruit and grain, this woodpecker has been
accused of destroying the eggs of other birds and even of killing the
young; and from Florida comes a report that it enters poultry houses
and sucks the eggs of domestic fowls. Mr. Charles Aldrich, of Webster
City, Iowa, says that a Red-headed Woodpecker was seen to kill a
duckling with a single blow on the head, and then to peck out and eat
the brains.’ In view of such testimony remains of eggs and young
birds were carefully looked for in the stomachs examined, but pieces
of eggshell were found in only 1 stomach of the Flicker and 2 of the
Redhead.
A very unusual trait has been recorded by Dr. Howard Jones, of
Circleville, Ohio. Dr. Jones says he has seen the Red-headed Wood-
pecker steal the eggs of eave swallows, and in cases where the necks of
the nests were so long that the eggs were out of reach the woodpecker
made a hole in the walls of the nest and so obtained the contents. In
a colony of swallows containing ‘dozens’ of nests not a single brood
of young was raised. One of the woodpeckers also began to prey upon
hens’ eggs, and was finally captured in the act of robbing the nest of a
sitting hen?
No traces of young birds or of any other vertebrates were discovered
in the stomachs of any of the 7 species under consideration, except
bones of a small frog which were found in the stomach of a Red-bellied
Woodpecker (jelanerpes carolinus) from Florida.
The Redhead has been accused of doing considerable damage to fruit
and grain, and both charges are fairly well sustained. In northern
New York Dr. Merriam has seen it peck into apples on the tree, and
has several times seen it feed on choke cherries (Prunus virginiana).
Mr. August Jahn, of Pope County, Ark., writes that it has damaged
his corn to the amount of $10 or $15, and Dr. J. R. Mathers, of Upshur
County, W. Va., says that the same species feeds on cherries, straw-
berries, raspberries, and blackberries, and that its depredations are
sometimes serious. According to Mr. Witmer Stone, of Germantown,
Pa., Red-headed Woodpeckers have been observed to strip a black-
berry patch of allofits fruit. Mr. W. B. McDaniel, of Decatur County,
Ga., also reports that the Sapsucker and Redhead eat grapes and cher-
ries, the loss being sometimes considerable. These examples show the
nature of the evidence contributed by eye-witnesses, the accuracy of
whose observations there is no-reason to doubt. That the stomach
examinations do not reveal more damaging points against the species
is not surprising, for a person seeing a bird eating his choice fruit, or
in some other way inflicting damage, is more impressed by it than by the
sight of a hundred of the same species quietly pursuing their ordinary
vocations. Thus an occasional act is taken as a characteristic habit.
1Am. Nat., Vol. VT, No. 5, May, 1877, p. 308.
2Ornithologist and Oologist, Vol. VIII, No. 7, 1883, p. 56.
24 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
One hundred and one stomachs of the Redhead were examined from
specimens collected throughout the year, although the bird is not gen-
erally abundant in the Northern States during the winter months,
The specimens were taken in 20 States, the District of Columbia and
Canada, and are fairly well distributed over the whole region east. of
the Rocky Mountains. The contents of the stomachs consisted of:
Animal matter, 50 percent; vegetable matter, 47 percent; mineral
matter, 38 percent. The animal and vegetable elements are nearly
balanced, and the mineral element is larger than in any except the
Flicker. The insects consist of ants, wasps, beetles, bugs, grasshop-
pers, crickets, moths, and caterpillars. Spiders and myriapods also
were found. Ants amounted to about 11 percent of the whole food, which
is the smallest showing of any of the 7 species under consideration,
and is in harmony with the habits of the bird, which collects its food
upon exposed surfaces where ants do not often occur. Beetle remains
formed nearly one-third of all food, the highest record of any one of
the 7 woodpeckers. The families represented were those of the com-
mon May beetle (Lechnosterna), which was found in several stomachs,
the predaceous ground beetles, tiger beetles, weevils, and a few others.
Among the May beetle family is a rather large, brilliant green beetle,
known to entomologists as Allorhina nitida, but commonly called by
the less dignified name of ‘June bug.’ It is very common during the
early summer in the Middle and Southern States, but less so at the
North. This insect was found in 11 stomachs, and 5 individuals were
identified in a single stomach, which would seem an enormous meal for
a bird of this size. Another large beetle eaten by this woodpecker is
the fire-ground beetle (Calosoma calidum), a predaceous beetle of large
size and vile odor. Passalus cornutus, one of the staghorns, a large
insect, was also found, as well as a pair of mandibles belonging to
Prionus brevicornus, one of the largest beetles in the United States. A
preference for large beetles is one of the pronounced characteristics of
this woodpecker. Weevils were found in 15 stomachs, and in several
cases aS many as 10 were present. Remains of Carabid beetles were
found in 44 stomachs to an average amount of 24 percent of the con-
tents of those that contained them, or 10 percent of all. The fact that
43 percent of all the birds taken had eaten these beetles, some of them
to the extent of 16 individuals, shows a decided fondness for these
insects, and taken with the fact that 5 stomachs contained Cicindelids
or tiger beetles forms a rather strong indictment against the bird.
Grasshoppers and crickets formed 6 percent of the whole food, a
larger percentage than in any of the other 7 Species. The aggregate
for all other insects is 4 percent, and the most important kinds are
wasps and their allies. As this bird has often been seen capturing
insects on the wing! it is probable that the wasps were taken in that
way.
'See Merriam, Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. IIT, July, 1878, p. 126; also Forest
and Stream, Vol. IX, January 17, 187%, p. 451.
RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 25
The vegetable food of the Redhead presents considerable variety,
and shows some points of difference from that of the other wood-
peckers. The following is the list of substances identified:
Grain: Fruit—Continued.
Corn. Apples.
Fruit: Pears.
Dogwood berries (Cornus candidissima Unidentified.
and C. florida). Miscellaneous:
Huckleberries (Gaylussacia). Sumac seeds (Rhus copallina and R,
Strawberries ( Fragaria). glabra).
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus).
Mulberries (Morus).
Elderberries (Sambucus).
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina).
Choke cherries (Prunus virginiana).
Cultivated cherries.
Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia).
Ragweed seeds (Ambrosia).
Pigweed seeds (Chenopodium).
Acorns (Quercus).
Seeds unidentified.
Galls.
Flower anthers.
Rubbish.
Corn was found in 17 stomachs, collected from May to September,
inclusive, and amounted to more than 7 percent of all the food.
While it seems to be eaten in any condition, that taken in the late sum.
mer was in the milk, and evidently picked from standing ears. This
being the largest percentage of grain shown by any of the 7 species
corroborates some of the testimony received, and indicates that the
Redhead, if sufficiently abundant, might do considerable damage to
the growing crop, particularly if other food was not at hand. While
the fruit list is not so long as in the case of the Flicker, it includes
more kinds that are, or may be, cultivated; and the quantity found in
the stomachs, a little more thau 33 percent of all the food, is greater
than in any of the others. Strawberries were found in 1 stomach,
blackberries or raspberries in 15, cultivated cherries in 2, apples in 4,
and pears in 6. Fruit pulp was found in 33 stomachs, and it is almost
certain that a large part of this was obtained from some of the larger
cultivated varieties. Seeds were found in but few stomachs, and only
a small number in each. ;
RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER.
(Melanerpes carolinus.)
The Red-bellied Woodpecker is a more southern species than any of
the others treated in this bulletin. It is not known to breed north of
the Carolinian fauna, and is abundant in Florida and the Gulf States.
Curiously enough it sometimes migrates north of its breeding range to
spend the winter.
Only 22 stomachs of this species have been obtained by the division.
These were collected in 9 States, ranging from Florida to Michigan and
from Maryland to Kansas, and in every month except April, June, and
July. Anexamination of their stomachs shows: animal matter (insects)
26 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
26 percent and vegetable matter 74 percent. A small quantity of
gravel was found in 7 stomachs, but was not reckoned as food. Ants
were found in 14 stomachs, and amounted to 11 percent of the whole
food. Adult beetles stand next in importance, aggregating 7 percent
of all food, while larval beetles only reach 3 percent. Caterpillars had
been taken by only 2 birds, but they had eaten so many that they
amounted to + percent of the whole food. The remaining animal food
is made up of small quantities of bugs (Hemiptera), crickets ( Orthoptera),
and spiders, with a few bones of a small tree frog found in 1 stomach
taken in Florida.
Dr. B. H. Warren states that the stomachs of 3 Red-bellied Wood-
peckers captured in winter in Chester and Delaware counties, Pa., con-
tained black beetles, larvie, fragments of acorns, and a few seeds of
wild grapes. The stomachs of 8 adults from the St. Johns River,
Florida, contained red seeds of 2 species of palmetto, but no insects.
Two additional stomachs from the same locality contained palmetto
berries, fragments of crickets (Nemobius and Oracharis saltator), a pal-
metto ant (Camponotus escuriens), and numerous joints of a myriapod,
probably Julus.!
Dr. Townend Glover found in the stomach of a Red-bellied Wood-
pecker killed in December “ pieces of acorns, seeds, and gravel, but no
insects. Another, shot in December, contained wing-cases of Buprestis,
and a species of wasp or Polistes, acorns, seeds, and no bark. A third,
shot in May, was filled with seeds, pieces of bark, and insects, among —
which was an entire Lachnosterna, or May bug.”?
The vegetable food of the Red-bellied Woodpecker contained in the
22 stomachs examined by the division consisted of the following seeds —
and fruits:
Grain: Fruit—Continued.
Corn, Saw palmetto (Sabal serrulata).
Fruit: Holly (flex opaca).
Mulberries (Morus rubra). Wild sarsaparilla ( dralia nudicaulia).
Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia), Bay berries (Myrica cerifera).
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quin- Pine (Pinus echinata).
quefolia). Poison ivy (Rhus radicans).
Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis). Ragweed (4 mbrosia sp.).
Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi-
folia).
Corn was found in only 2 stomachs. The other items were well dis-
tributed, and none of them appear to be specially preferred, unless it
may be the poison ivy, which was found in 6 stomachs, and amounted to
nearly 12 per cent of the whole food. Although 8 of the 22 birds were
collected in Florida, no trace of the pulp of oranges was discovered, but
that oranges are eaten by them is shown by the following interesting
notes.
Birds of Pennsylvania 2a ed., 1890, pp. 174, 175.
7 U.S. Agric. Rept, for 1865, 1866, p. 38,
RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 27
Dr. B. H. Warren states that in Florida the Red-bellied Woodpecker
is commonly known as ‘Orange Sapsucker’ and ‘Orange Borer.’ Dr.
Warren collected 26 of these woodpeckers in an orange grove near
Volusia and found that 11 of them contained orange pulp. Three con-
tained nothing else; the others had eaten also insects and berries.
Corroborating Dr. Warren’s account, Mr. William Brewster states
that at Enterprise, Fla., in February, 1889, he saw a Red-bellied Wood-
pecker eating the pulp of a sweet orange. Mr. Brewster states that the
woodpecker attacked the orange on the ground, pecking at it in a slow
and deliberate way for several minutes. On examining the orange it
was found to be decayed on one side. ‘In the sound portion were three
holes, each nearly as large as a silver dollar, with narrow strips of peel
between them. The pulp had been eaten out quite to the middle of the
fruit. Small pieces of rind were thickly strewn about the spot.” Upon
searching closely he discovered several other oranges that had been
attacked in a similiar manner. All were partially decayed and were
lying on the ground. He was unable to find any on the trees which
showed any marks of the woodpecker’s bill.!
Mr. Benjamin Mortimer, writing of the same bird at Sanford, Fla.,
says:
During February and March, 1889, while gathering fruit or pruning orange trees,
I frequently found oranges that had been riddled by this woodpecker and repeatedly
saw the bird at work. I never observed it feeding upon fallen oranges. It helped
itself freely to sound fruit that still hung on the trees, and in some instances J have
found ten or twelve oranges on one tree that had been tapped by it. Where an
orange accidentally rested on a branch in such away as to make the flower end acces-
sible from above or from a horizontal direction the woodpecker chose that spot, as
through it he could reach into all the sections of the fruit, and when this was the
case there was but one hole in theorange. But usually there were many holes around
it. It appeared that after having once commenced on an orange, the woodpecker
returned to the same one repeatedly until he had completely consumed the pulp, and
then he usually attacked another very near to it. ThusI have found certain clusters
in which every orange had been bored, while all the others on the tree were
untouched, Anold orange grower told me that the “ Sapsuckers,” as he called them,
never touch any but very ripe oranges, and are troublesome only to such growers as
reserved their crops for the late market. He also said that it is only within a very
few years that they have shown a taste for the fruit; and I myself observed that,
although Red-bellies were very common in the neighborhood, only an individual, or
perhaps a pair, visited any one grove.’
'The Auk, Vol. VI, 1889, pp. 337-338.
2The Auk, Vol. VII, 1890, p. 340.
28 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER OR SAPSUCKER.
(Sphyrapicus varius. )
This species is probably the most migratory of all our woodpeckers,
breeding only in the most northerly parts of the United States, and in
some of the mountains farther south. In the fall it ranges southward,
spending the winter in most of the Eastern States. It is less generally
distributed than some of the other woodpeckers, being quite unknown
in some sections and very abundant in others. For instance, Dr. C,
Hart Merriam states that in the Adirondack region during migration it
Iria. 4.—Yollow-bellied Woodpecker or Sapsucker.
outnumbers all other species of the family together, and throughout the
summer is second in numbers only to the Hairy Woodpecker; and at
Mount Chocorua, New Hampshire, Mr. Frank Bolles found it the most
abundant species. In Minnesota also it is very common. On the other
hand, near my home in Massachusetts only two or three were observed
each year; and during a residence of eight years in Iowa it was noted
only three or four times.
YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 29
It is to this species that the term ‘Sapsucker’ is most often and
most justly applied, for it drills holes in the bark of certain trees and
drinks the sap. It feeds also on cambium, insects, and wild fruits and
berries.
In writing of the habits of these woodpeckers in northern New York
in 1878, Dr. Merriam states:
They really do considerable mischief by drilling holes in the bark of apple, thorn-
apple, and mountain ash trees in such a way as to form girdles of punctures, some-
times 2 feet or more in breadth (up and down), about the trunks and branches.
* * * The holes, which are sometimes merely single punctures, and sometimes
squarish spaces (multiple punctures) nearly half an inch across, are placed so near
together that not unfrequently they cover more of the tree than the remaining bark.
Hence, more than half of the bark is sometimes removed from the girdled portions,
and the balance often dries up and comes off. Therefore it is not surprising that
trees which have been extensively girdled generally die, and mountain ash are much
more prone to do so than either apple or thornapple trees, due, very likely, to their
more slender stems. The motive which induces this species to operate thus upon
young and healthy trees is, I think, but partly understood. It is unquestionably
true that they feed, to a certain extent, both upon the inner bark and the fresh sap
from these trees, but that the procurement of these two elements of sustenance,
gratifying as they doubtless are, is their chief aim in making the punctures I am
inclined to dispute. As the sap exudes from the newly-made punctures, thousands
of flies, yellow jackets, and other insects congregate about the place, till the hum of
their wings suggests a swarm of bees. If, now, the tree be watched, the woodpecker
will soon be seen to return and alight over the part of the girdle which he has most
recently punctured. Here he remains, with motionless body, and feasts upon the
choicest species from the host of insects within easy reach. * * * In making
each girdle they work around the trunk, and from below upwards, but they may
begin a new girdle below an old one. They make but few holes each day, and after
completing two or three remain over the spot fer some little time, and as the clear
fresh sap exudes and trickles down the bark they place their bill against the depen-
dent drop and suck it in with evident relish—a habit which has doubtless given rise
to the more appropriate than elegant term Sapsucker, by which they are commonly
known in some partsof the country. I haveseveral times watched this performance
at a distance of less than 10 feet, and all the details of the process were distinctly
seen, the bird looking at me, meanwhile, ‘out of the corner of his eye.’ When his
thirst is satisfied he silently disappears, and as silently returns again, after a few
hours, to feast upon the insects that have been attracted to the spot by the escaping
sap. This bird, then, by a few strokes of its bill, is enabled to secure both food (ani-
mal and vegetable) and drink in abundance for an entire day; and a single tree,
favorably situated, may suffice for a whole season.!
The late Frank Bolles has published some interesting detailed obser-
vations respecting the food habits of the Sapsucker. His conclusions
are:
That the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker is in the habit for successive years of drill-
ing the canoe birch, red maple, red oak, white ash, and probably other trees, for the
purpose of taking from them the elaborated sap, and insome cases parts of the cam-
bium layer; that the birds consume the sap in large quantities for its own sake and
not for insect matter which such sap may chance occasionally to contain; that the
sap attracts many insects of various species, a few of which form a considerable
part of the food of this bird, but whose capture does not occupy its time to any-
1 Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. IV, January, 1879, pp. 3-5.
30 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
thing like the extent to which sap drinking occupies it; * * * that the forest
trees attacked by them generally die, possibly in the second or third year of use;
that tho total damage done by them is too insignificant to justify their persecution
in well-wooded regions. !
Mr. Bolles shot 8 Sapsuckers in July and August, 1890. Their stom-
achs “were well filled with insects.” Some of these were examined by
Mr. Samuel H. Scudder, who states:
The insects in the different stomachs are in all eases almost exclusively composed of
the harder chitinous parts of ants. In acursory examination I find little else, though
one or two beetles are represented, and No, 4 must have swallowed an entire wasp
of the largest size, his head and wings attesting thereto.?
In a subsequent article Mr. Bolles gives the result of an attempt to
keep several young Sapsuckers alive on a diet of dilute maple sirup.
Unfortunately for the experiment, the birds obtained and greedily
devoured numerous insects attracted to the cage by the sirup. How
many of the insects were eaten was not known, but all of the birds
died within four months. Examination of their bodies showed fatty
degeneration of the liver—a condition said to be usual in cases of star-
vation. Mr. Bolles states:
The most probable cause of this enlargement of the liver, which seems to have
been the reason for the death of the 3 Sapsuckers, was an undue proportion of
sugar in their diet. In a wild state they would have eaten insects every day and
kept their stomachs well filled with the chitinous parts of acid insects. Under
restraint they secured fewer and fewer insects, until, during the last few weeks of
their lives, they had practically no solid food of any kind.*
Mr. Bolles has thus proved by experiment that concentrated sap
(saturated with sugar) is not sufficient to sustain life, even with the
addition of a small percentage of insects. The logical inference is
that sap, while liked by the birds and consumed in large quantities,
holds asubordinate place as an article of food.
The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker is represented in the collection by
81 stomachs, distributed rather irregularly through the year. None were
taken in ebruary, March, or November, and only a few in January,
June, and December; the great bulk were collected in April, August,
September, and October. They were obtained from 15 States, the
District of Columbia, and Nova Scotia. All were from the Northern
States, except a few from North Carolina, Virginia, and the District of
Columbia. Unlike any of the preceding species the vegetable element
of the food here exactly equals the animal part. The insect matter
was made up of ants, wasps, beetles, flies, bugs, grasshoppers, crickets,
and mayflies. Some spiders also were present. Of the whole food, 36
percent consisted of ants, a higher percentage than in any other wood-
pecker except the Flicker. Beetles amounted to 5 percent, and do not
appear to be a favorite food. Flies (Diptera) in various forms were
‘Tho Auk, Vol. VIII, July, 1891, p. 270.
*The Auk, Vol. VIII, July, 1891, p. 269.
‘The Auk, Vol. IX, April, 1892, p. 119.
YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. 31
eaten in larger numbers than by any of the others. Among them were
several long-legged crane flies ( Tipulids). Spiders were eaten to a small
extent only, and most of these were phalangers or ‘daddy-longlegs,’
which, taken with the crane flies, would indicate a slight preference for
long-legged prey. Bugs, wasps, caterpillars, crickets, and mayfiies
collectively amount to about 6 percent, no one of them reaching any
very important figure. Prof. Samuel Aughey examined 5 stomachs of
the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker in Nebraska, all of which contained
grasshoppers. The number in each stomach varied from 15 to 33.
Mr. William Brewster states that at Umbagog Lake, Maine, “ After
the young have hatched, the habits of the Yellow-bellied Woodpecker
change. From an humble delver after worms and larve, it rises to the
proud independence of a flycatcher, taking its prey on wing as uner-
tingly as the best marksman of them all. From its perch on the spire
of some tall stub it makes a succession of rapid sorties after its abun-
dant victims, and then flies off to its nest with bill and mouth crammed
full of insects, principally large Diptera.”!
The vegetable food of the Sapsucker is varied. The following fruits
and berries were found in the stomachs:
Fruit: Miscellaneous:
Dogwood berries (Cornus florida).
Black alder berries (Ilex rerticillata).
Virginia creeper berries ( Parthenocis-
sus quinquefolia).
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina).
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus).
Unidentified.
Poison ivy seeds (Rhus radicans).
Mullein seeds ( Verbascum thapsus).
Juniper berries (Juniperus virginiana).
Buds.
Seeds unidentified.
Cambium.
Rubbish.
The quantity of fruit found in the stomachs formed 26 percent of the
entire food, but the only kinds identified that might possibly be culti-
vated were blackberries and raspberries, and these were in only 2
stomachs. Unidentifiable fruit pulp was found in 12 stomachs. Mis-
cellaneous seeds to the amount of 5 percent complete the list of sub-
stances eaten by this species. Poison ivy seeds were found in only 1
stomach, and most of the other things were distributed in about the
same proportion.
Dr. Merriam informs me that in the fall in northern New York the
Sapsuckers feed on ripening beechnuts, the small branches bending
low with the weight of the birds while picking the tender nuts.
‘Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club, Vol. I, 1876, No. 3, p. 69.
32 THE FOOD OF WOODPECKERS.
GREAT PILEATED WOODPECKER.
|
(Ceophleus pileatus.) ;
Excepting the Ivory Bill this is the largest woodpecker in the United _
States, where it inhabits most of the heavily wooded districts. Itisshy
and retiring, seldom appearing outside of the forests, and difficult to
approach even in its favorite haunts. Its large size, loud voice, and ,
habit of hammering upon dead trees render it conspicuous. Its strength
is marvelous, and one unacquainted with it can scarcely credit a bird
with such power of destruction as is sometimes shown by a stump or
dead trunk on which it has operated for ants or boring larve.
Only 23 stomachs of the Pileated Woodpecker have been obtained;
all taken in the months of October, November, December, and January,
and collected from 6 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada
(including New Brunswick). Fifty-one percent of the contents of
these stomachs consisted of animal matter or insects; 49 percent.of
vegetable matter. Tle insects were principally ants and beetles, with a
few of some other orders. The ants were mostly of the larger species
that live in decaying wood. A large proportion of the beetles were in
the larval form, and all were of the wood-boring species. There were
also a few caterpillars, also wood-borers, a few plant lice, several cock-
roaches of the species that live under the bark of dead trees, a few
white ants and a few flies, with one spider.
The gizzard of a Pileated Woodpecker shot by Dr. Merriam in the
Adirondacks, April 25, 1882, contained hundreds of large ants and no
other food. Six stomachs, collected by Dr. B. H. Warren on the St.
Johns River in Florida, contained numerous palmetto ants (Campanotus
escuriens), and remains of other ants, several larve of a Prionid beetle
(Orthosoma brunnea), numerous builder ants (Cremastogaster lineolata),
one larva of Xylotrechus, and one pupa of the white ant (Termes), The
insects were determined under Prof. ©. V. Riley!
Seeds and berries of the following plants were found in the stomachs
examined by the division:
Sourgum (Nyssa aquatica). Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinque-
Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida). folia).
Black haw (Viburnum prunifolium). Greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia and
Cassena (Ilex cassine). S. glauca),
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), Sumac (Lhus copallina),
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), Poison sumac (Rhus vernix).
Wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia). Poison ivy (Rhus radicans),
‘Birds of Pennsylvania, 2d ed., 1890, p. 177.
OTHER WOODPECKERS, 33
In addition to the 7 species of woodpeckers whose food has been
already discussed, 57 stomachs have been examined, belonging to 12
species and subspecies, mostly from the southern and western parts of
the United States and British Columbia, as follows:
Stomachs,
Nuttall’s Woodpecker (Dryobates nuttalii).........---2. 222-2222 ---- 2 ee eee eee eee 7
Red-cockaded Woodpecker (Dryobates borealis) .......--------- 2-22. -2-e eee eee 12
Baird’s Woodpecker (Dryobates scalaris bairdi)...-...---....-22. --02------ ee eee 3
Gilded Flicker (Colaptes chrysoides) .... 222... 0200002222 cee cee cence nee ceeee eee 3
Red-shafted Flicker (Colaptes cafer) .....-..--.--.---- 20+ -e eee eee eee eee eee i
Northwestern Flicker (Colaptes cafer saturatior)...........----.----------------- 5
California Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus bairdi) .....-..-.-.-----.-----+ 1
Lewis’s Woodpecker (Melanerpes torquatus) ...-..--..------ +2222 eee ee eee eee 3
Gila Woodpecker (Melunerpes uropygialis) .....--..-----+ 2222-222 ee eee eee eee 1
Red-breasted Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber)......-.-.----+- 0-22-2222 - eee eee eee 1
Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus) ......-.-.---+----------+------5 7
Alpine Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides americanus dorsalis)......-.---.-------- 3
With such a small number of stomachs it is hardly worth while to dis-
cuss the food of each species. The Three-toed Woodpeckers (Picoides),
however, deserve passing notice, since their food contains a larger per-
centage of wood-boring larve than any other woodpecker examined.
As the food of the two species is practically the same they may be con-
sidered together. The contents ofthe 10 stomachs consists of: animal
matter, 83 percent; vegetable matter, 17 percent. It is a question
whether this should not all be considered as animal, for the vegetable
portion consisted almost entirely of rotten wood and similar rubbish,
probably taken accidentally, and is not in any proper sense food, the
exception being in one case where a little cambium had been eaten by
one individual of the Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus)
aud a few skins of some small fruit by one Alpine Three-toed Wood-
pecker (P. americanus dorsalis). The animal food consisted of 63 per
cent of weod-boring Coleopterous larve (beetles), 11 percent of Lepi-
dopterous larve (caterpillars), probably also wood-borers, and 9 per
cent of adult beetles, ants, and other Hymenopterous insects.
18269—No. 7——3
THE TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS.
RELATION OF THE FORM OF THE TONGUE TO THE CHARACTER OF
THE FOOD.
By Freperic A. Lucas,
Curator, Department of Comparative Anatomy,
United States National Museum.
Whether the tongues of birds are of value in classification, or whether
the modifications of the tongue, at least the external modifications, are
due to adaptation to the character of the food or the manner in which
food is manipulated, is a question of much interest. Unfortunately
the food and feeding habits of birds are so little known that in many
cases the adaptive characters of the tongue are not recognized, since
without a knowledge of the one it is difficult or impossible to explain
the peculiarities of the other.
The results of the preliminary investigation of the food of North
American woodpeckers, made by the Division of Ornithology and Mam-
malogy of the Department of Agriculture, suggested that this group
would be a most excellent one to study, and the tongues of all available
species have been examined.
The woodpeckers are structurally a well-marked, compact group, and
any variation in the structure of a given part, if shown to be directly
correlated with some peculiarity of habit, would be a good indication
that the one was dependent on the other. A comparison of the struc-
ture and modifications of the tongue with the results obtained from the
examination of a large series of stomachs will, it is thought, show that
just such a correlation does exist between the two, and that the form of
the tongue varies surprisingly according to the nature of the food.
It is of course always necessary to bear in mind that the food of a
bird necessarily varies with the season—a fact well shown by the group
under consideration—and consequently that the peculiarity of the
tongue may be related to some special kind of food, or particular
method of obtaining it, pursued during a portion of the year only. A
1 Published by permission of Dr. G. Brown Goode, Director United States National
Museum. es
36 THE TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS.
particular kind of food which could be best obtained by some special
adaptive feature would naturally have more influence as a modifying
agent, even if indulged in for only a short time, than a general diet
for a long period, since the one would be positive in its effects, the
other negative.
As the hyoid bone is the framework on which the tongue is built, it
will be well to note some of its characteristic features in the wood-
peckers before proceeding to the modifications of the tongue itself.
The hyoid is so constructed as to combine the two characters of length
and strength that are needed for extensile purposes. The front of the
hyoid is formed by the short, fused cerato-hyals, although a groove, or
in some cases a perforation, indicates the double origin of this bone.
The basi-hyal is usually very long and very slender and the cerato-
branchials abut upon its posterior end, the basi-branchial being absent,
nor have any indications of this bone been found even in very young
specimens. The cerato-branchials aud epi-branchials are variable,
especially the latter, which, as in the Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus), may be
no longer than in many Passeres, or, as in the Flickers (Colaptes), reach
the maximum length among birds. The epi-branchials curve up over
the back of the skull, meet on its summit, and continue on toward
the forehead. In other long-tongued birds, as in the humming bird
(Trochilus), for example, the apposed bones reach to the base of the
bill, but in the longest-tongued, woodpeckers they turn to the right,
pass through the right narial opening, dipping under the nostril, and
thence continue quite to the tip of the bill, so that in these species the
extreme possible length of tongue is reached unless some other device
is resorted to.|_ The cerato-branchials lie side by side when the tongue
is protruded, and even when it is withdrawn they are posteriorly but
little separated. The general character of the hyoid is constant in all
species examined, but, as just stated, the proportions of its component
parts vary, the extremes being represented by the Sapsucker (Sphyra-
picus) and Flicker (Colaptes), both of which are figured (P1. IT, figs.1, 3).
Externally the tongue consists at the tip of a horny portion more or
less barbed along the edges; this is followed by a section covered with
tough skin bearing on the upper surface a long patch of minute points,
wuile the basal portion is clothed with smooth, elastic skin, which is
more or less wrinkled tranversely when the tongue is retracted. The
skin covering the base of the tongue is reflected, forming a sort of sheath,
into which the basal part of the tongue is withdrawn when at rest.
The shape of the patch of minute points, as well as the number and
character of the points themselves, seems to vary in different species, .
'Tt would appear that a method is already in uso by which the length of the tongue -
can be greatly increased, and this is the curling of the free ends of the epi-branchials —
into a spiral. Although I have never met with a specimen in which the hyoid was
so arranged, both Dr. Bryant and Mr. Wm. Palmer have recorded specimens in which
the hyoid encircled the eye. Dr. Bryant’s paper, entitled ‘“Remarks on Sphyrapicus
varius, Linn.,” appeared in Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. X, 1864~66, pp. 91-93.
VARIATION IN FORM. 37
and, although these points are so small as to appear like mere granula
tions, they are seen under the microscope to have a perfectly definite
form and to be directed backward (PI. III, figs 8,9.) They are smallest
toward the tront of the patch, and increase in size from thence back-
ward.
The anterior, horny portion of the tongue is also subject to great
variation. In most species it is armed on either side with a number of
sharp, backwardly-directed spines, but these may vary in number froin
two or three in the Flicker (Colaptes, P1.II, fig. 10), up to thirty or forty
in the Redhead (Melanerpes, Pl. II, fig.2). One specimen of Flicker,
labeled Colaptes hybridus, P1. I, fig. 1), had the tip of the tongue wholly
unarmed; but this may have been an individual peculiarity, and if so,
would be interesting as showing the retention in the adult of the con-
dition found in the young. In the Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus) the tongue
bears no spines, but two series of stiff hairs, the lower set directed out-
ward, the upper series backward. Of course, strictly speaking, these
hairs are simply very slender spines, and in the California Wood-
pecker (Melanerpes formicivorous bairdi, Pl. II, fig. 1) we find an almost
intermediate stage, the spines being quite fine, and the sides of the
tongue, as in a few other species, furnished with a few short hairs lying
below the spines and directed outward and forward.
In very young woodpeckers the tongue is unarmed at the point, bear-
ing neither hairs nor spines, although the patch of minute points on the
upper surface is present from the first. Later on, as indicated by a
fully-fledged nestling of the Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens,
PL ILI, fig. 6), a species whose tongue, when adult, is armed with sharp
barbs, “the spines are represented by short, fine, reflexed hairs, like the
upper series of the Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), Thus it would
seem that the lateral spines are acquired after the bird has commenced
to fly, and that they must be developed very rapidly, although speci-
mens showing the.various stages in their acquisition are lacking. The
growth of the hyoid must be correspondingly rapid, for in the nestling
alluded to the ends of the epi-branchials. reached only to the center of
the skull, although the Downy is a long-tongued bird whose hyoid runs
beneath tind nostril into the bill. This rapid growth has been observed
in the hyoid of humming birds, in which the growth of the bill is also
very rapid after hatching, and it would appear that great changes take
place in the tongue and beak about the time the young bird ceases to
be fed and begins to feed itself.
If woodpeckers were to be classified by their tongues we would start
with forms like Delattre’s Woodpecker (Ceophleus scapularis, Pl, I,
fig.11), and Flicker (Colaptes auratus or C. chrysoides, P1. II, fig. 10), in
which the tongue is armed with two or three points on each side; pass
through the Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus, Pl. I, fig. ?)
inito the White-headed Woodpecker (Xenopicus alteloeiule, Pi. I,
fig. 8). and Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens, Pl. I, fig. 4),
PLaTE I,
Tongues of North American Woodpeckers (all viewed from above and enlarged
24 diameters).
Fig. 1.
2.
Hybrid Flicker (Colaptes). Fort Pierre, S. Dak.
Delattre’s Woodpecker (Ceophlwus scapularis). Tabasco, Mexico.
. Gilded Flicker (Colaptes chrysoides). San Jose del Cabo, Lower California.
. Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens). Washington, D. C.
. White-headed Woodpecker (Yenopicus albolarvatus), Clarks Fork, Colum-
bia River, Washington.
» Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus).
» Gila Woodpecker (Velanerpes uropygialis), Fort Huachuca, Ariz.
. Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus). Ilinois.
. Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus). Northern Illinois.
. California Woodpecker (Mclanerpes formicivorous bairdi). Stockton, Cal.
. Ladder-back Woodpecker (Dryobates scalaris). Matamoras, Mexico.
. Red-naped Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nuchalis). Fort Wingate, N. Mex.
40
Bull. 7, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I
TONGUES OF WOODPECKERS.
PuateE II.
Tips of tongues of North American Woodpeckers (all save 4 viewed from above
and enlarged 94 diameters).
Fig. 1.
-2,
3
4,
5
6
California Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorous bairdi). Stockton, Cal.
Red-headed Woodpecker (.Velanerpes erythrocephalus). Northern Illinois.
. Ladder-back Woodpecker (Dryobates scalaris). Matamoras, Mexico,
Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens). Washington, D.C.
. Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus). Tllinois.
. Gila Woodpecker (Melanerpes uropygialis). Fort Huachuca, Ariz.
6a. Another specimen showing variation due to wear of tongue. San Jose
7.
del Cabo, Lower California.
Hairy Woodpecker (Dryobates villosus).
4d
. White-headed Woodpecker (Xenopicus albolarvatus). Clarks Fork, Colum-
bia River, Washington.
. Pileated Woodpecker (Ceophleus pileatus). Louisiana.
. Gilded Flicker (Colaptes chrysoides). San Jose del Cabo, Lower California.
. Delattre’s Woodpecker (Ceophleus scapularis). Tabasco, Mexico,
42
Pate Il.
Bull. 7, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Tonaues oF WOODPECKERS.
aR
Pode
Pruare IIL.
. Hyoid of Flicker (Colaptes auratus) (adult, x 2).
. Hyoid of Flicker (Colaptes auratus) (recently hatched, x 2).
. Hyoid of Red-naped Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius nuchalis) (xX 2).
. Tongue of recently hatched Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens)
(x 4).
. Tongue of fully-fledged nestling of Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubes-
cens) (X 34).
. Tip of tongue of fully-fledged nestling of Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates
pubescens) (X 6).
. Tip of tongue of adult Downy Woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) (Xx 6).
. Spines from dorsal tract of tongue of Red-headed Woodpecker (Melanerpes
erythrocephalus) (greatly enlarged).
- Spines from dorsal tract of tongue of Ladder-back Woodpecker (Dryo-
bates scalaris) (greatly enlarged).
44
c
PLaTE III.
!
THE BLUE JAY AND ITS FOOD,
<¥F. EL. L. BEAL,
Assistant Biologist, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.
[REPRINTED FROM THE YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
( FOR 1896. ]
THE BLUE JAY AND ITS FOOD.
By F. E. L. Brat,
Assistant Biologist, U. S. Department of Ayriculture.
GENERAL REMARKS.
Of the various birds that enliven the groves and orchards, few are
more conspicuous than the common blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)
(fig. 40). Its loud and rather harsh voice, striking colors, and obtrusive
actions attract attention when other birds equally abundant remain
unnoticed. An accurate knowledge of its food habits is a matter of
some importance from an economic point of view, since the bird is
abundant and feeds largely upon grain and other hard seeds, although
the proportion supplied by the farmer’s crops has never been accu-
rately determined. It has also been shown that the jay occasionally
Wen \s
WK di
LS
iN S
Fia. 40.—The common blue jay.
preys upon the eggs or young of other birds, and some observers have
declared it an habitual nest robber and thief, but the extent of its
nest-robbing proclivities is unknown, and a detailed examination of
its food is necessary in order to throw more light on these points.
The blue jay is distributed over the whole of the United States east
of the Great Plains, from the Gulf of Mexico to Manitoba and New-
foundland. It remains constant in form and color throughout most
of this region, except in Florida and along the Gulf coast, where a
smaller race (Cyanocitta cristata florincola) occurs, While jays com-
monly resort to the forest to breed, they do not by any means confine
themselves to the woods, but visit orchards, meadows, gardens, and
197
198 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
farmyards in search of food. They remain throughout the year in most
parts of their range, and their beautiful blue plumage is particularly
conspicuous in the fall and winter months, when the trees are partly or
wholly denuded of foliage. Their saucy, independent airs, sprightly
manners, brilliant colors, and jaunty, plumed caps have gained them
many friends, in spite of the fact that their food habits are supposed
to be somewhat detrimental to the interests of the farmer. So com-
pletely is this latter fact forgotten in the gloom and nakedness of
winter that it is a common practice in many places, notably in New
England, to place beds of chaff upon the snow into which corn is seat-
tered each day in order to attract the jays. When the ground is well
covered with its wintry fleece, they may be seen at all hours of the day
eagerly pecking in the chaff for the welcome morsels, and their pres-
ence in the garden and on the lawn relieves to some extent the winter
dearth of bird life.
The vocal powers of this bird, while by no means to be despised, are
not as pleasing as is its plumage, and most of its notes can be consid-
ered agreeable only by association. Jays are more or less garru-
lous all the year, but are particularly noisy at harvest time when
laying up a supply of food for winter. They also exhibit considera-
ble powers of mimicry and imitate the notes of many other birds with
considerable success. One which was kept in captivity by Mr. Syl-
vester D. Judd learned to pronounce several English names distinctly,
as well as to give a schoolboy’s yell and to whistle for a dog.
Blue jays have been charged with eating grain, devouring fruit, and
destroying the eggs and young of other birds. It is also asserted that
they devour numerous insects, and thus to some extent counterbal-
ance the harm they do. Many cases of nest robbing might be cited,
but it will be sufficient to give a few notes of field observers.
Mr. Henry M. Berry, of Iowa City, Iowa, claims to have seen blue
jays suck the contents of four eggs of the wood thrush while the old
bird was only a few feet distant doing its best to drive them away.
Mr. B. F. Goss, of Pewaukee, Wis., declares that they are the worst
robbers of all, and that their destruction of the eggs and young of
small birds is appalling.
Mr. T. J. Bull, of Wot Springs, Ark., writes: ‘‘ While standing on the
observatory on Hot Springs Mountain, I saw beneath me a pair of red-
birds chirping in great distress, and also noticed a blue jay fly away.
Upon looking more closely, I discovered a nest with one young bird
init. * * * Jn about half an hour the jay returned to the nest,
picked up the young bird, and flew away with it.”
In view of such explicit testimony from observers whose accuracy
can not be impeached, special pains have becn taken to ascertain how
far the charges were sustained by a study of the bird’s food. An ex-
amination was made of 292 stomachs collected in every month of the
year from 22 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada.
THE BLUE JAY AND ITS FOOD. 199
EXAMINATION OF STOMACH CONTENTS.
One of the first points to attract attention in examining these stom-
achs was the large quantity of mineral matter, averaging over 14 per
cent of the total contents. The real food is composed of 24.3 per vent
of animal matter and 75.7 per cent of vegetable matter, ora trifle more
than three times as much vegetable as animal (fig. 41). The animal
food is chiefly made up of insects, with a few spiders, myriapods,
snails, and small vertebrates, such as fish, salamanders, tree frogs,
mice, and birds. Everything was carefully examined which might
by any possibility indicate that birds or eggs had been eaten, but
remains of birds were found in only 2, and the shells of small birds’
eggs in 3of the 292 stomachs. One of these, taken on February 10, con-
tained the bones, claws, and a little skin of a bird’s foot. Another,
7
Jan.| Feb. | Mar.| Apr. | May | June |July | Aug.} Sep.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
——
Ui;
\—
i
—_/f (As
SY, Gy
FG LD
x A; :
E= = Vegetable food. ; 343 Useful insects.
WZ Noxious insects. HEE) “Miscellancous animal food.
Fia. 41.—Diagram showing the relative amounts of vegetable and animal food eaten by the blue
jay in each month of the year. The vegetable food is represented by the area above the line
AB; the animal food by the space below.
taken on June 24, contained remains of a young bird. The three
stomachs with birds’ eggs were collected in June, August, and October,
respectively. The shell eaten in October belonged to the egg of some
larger bird like the ruffed grouse, and considering the time of year,
was undoubtedly merely an empty shell from an old nest. Shells of
eggs which were identified as those of domesticated fowls, or some
bird of equal size, were found in 11 stomachs, collected at irregular
times during the year. This evidence would seem to show that more
eggs of domesticated fowls than of wild birds are destroyed, but it is
much more probable that these shells were obtained from refuse heaps
about farmhouses.
200 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
To reconcile such contradictory evidence is certainly difficult, but it
seems evident that these nest-robbing propensities are not as general
as has been heretofore supposed. If this habit were as prevalent as
some writers have asserted, and if it were true that eggs and young
of smaller birds constitute the chief food of the blue jay during the
breeding season, the small birds of any section where jays are fairly
abundant would be in danger of extermination.
The ease with which a bird’s actions may be misinterpreted is well
illustrated by the case of a stomach which was received with the
legend ‘‘Eating robins’ eggs,” but which, upon rigid examination,
failed to reveal even a minute trace of an egg. It is of course possi-
ble for a bird to eat an egg without swallowing any portion of the
shell, in which case the soft contents would soon disappear from
the stomach, but in view of the fact that such substances as dead
leaves, bits of plant stems, and rotten wood, which ate evidently
swallowed accidentally with insects or other food, are constantly found
in birds’ stomachs, it does not seem probable that blue jays would
discriminate against eggshells. To test this matter, four eggs of the
English sparrow were offered to a jay in captivity. The bird at once
seized the eggs and began to eat them, but when any piece of the
shell, no matter how minute, was accidentally dropped it was at once
picked up and swallowed, and several such picees that were thrown
to the farther end of the eage were also caten, so that the shells with
their membranes were entirely gone before the soft contents.
Besides birds, remains of small vertebrates were found in twelve
stomachs, as follows: Fish and salamanders in one stomach each, tree
frogs in four, mice in five, and a shrew in one. It is perhaps worthy
of note that Dr. B. I. Warren failed to find a trace of any vertebrate
remains in examining twenty-three stomachs of the blue jay, fourteen
of which were collected in May, one in June, three in September, and
five in October, (Birds of Pennsylvania, pp. 200-201.)
The jay kept in eaptivity by Mr, Judd showed a marked fond-
ness for mice, and would devour them apparently with great: relish.
Another bird ate only a portion of dead mice and refused to touch
live mice, preferring insects when it had an opportunity for choice.
INSECT FOOD,
Insects are eaten by blue jays in every month in the year, but nat-
urally only in small quantities during the winter. The great bulk of
the insect food consists of beetles, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with
a few bugs, wasps, and flies, and an oceasional spider and myriapod.
The average for the whole year is nearly 23 percent, varying from less
than 1 per cent in January to over 66 per cent in August, and gradu-
ally diminishing to 3.2 per cent in December, There is a remarkable
increase in the quantities eaten in spring and summer, the percent-
age increasing from 28 in May to 44 in June, and from 46 in July.to-
THE BLUE JAY AND ITS FOOD. 201
66.3 in August. The molting season may account for the inercase
in August, but that in June is not so easily explained. The beetles
found in the stomachs may be roughly divided into three groups:
Predaceous beetles (Carabids); those belonging to the May beetle
family (Scarabeids); and miscellaneous beetles, including about half
a dozen families. Each of these groups forms a little more than 34 per
cent of the food. The greatest number of predaceous beetles were
eaten in July, when they aggregated 10.25 per cent of the food of the
month. The Carabids belong for the most part to genera with blunt
jaws, such as Harpalus, Cratacanthus, and Stenolophus; only a few
specimens with sharp jaws like Pasimachus, Galerita, and Calosoma
were found, and it is probable that no great harm is done by the
destruction of these beetles, as they are not entirely carnivorous and
are therefore less useful, and the individuals are abundant.
Scarabeeids reach their maximum abundance in the jay’s food in
August (11.8 per cent), although nearly as many (11 per cent) were
eaten in June. They were mostly represented by the larger species,
such as the goldsmith beetle (Cofalpa lanigera), the spotted grapevine
beetle (Pelidnota punctata), the brilliant tumblebug (Phancus curni-
fex), with many May beetles (Lachnosterna), and quite a large number
of fruit-eating beetles (Huphoria inda and E. fulgida). At least
five specimens of Huphoria inda were found in one stomach, amount-
ing to 75 per cent of the whole food contents. It is worthy of notice
that one stomach contained a nearly perfect specimen of the grape-
vine beetle and also the seeds and skins of the wild grape (Its cor-
difolia), and it seems probable that the bird visited the vine to feed
upon the grapes, but finding the beetle swallowed that also. Beetles
belonging to other families aggregate 16.3 per cent in June, the most
important being a few leaf-eating beetles (Chrysomelide), some click
beetles (Elaterids), and a number of curculios (Cureulionide). <A
dozen curculios, belonging to the genus Balaninis, were found in a
single stomach, and threc in another, As these beetles live on acorns
and other nuts, it seems probable that the birds devoured them when
looking for their. favorite food, mast.
Grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts form about 4.4 per cent of the
food; but they do not become an important element until J uly. They
attain their maximum of 19.5 per cent in August, and continue in
considerable numbers until December. If June can be called the
beetle month in the dietary of the jay, August is the grasshopper
month; and birds that eat these insects at all eat the greatest quan-
tity at this time. Many birds that live during the rest of the year on
food obtained from trees or shrubs come to the ground and feed upon
grasshoppers in August. Caterpillars form an important element
only in March, August, and September, and the greatest’ number,
amounting to 11.4 per cent, were eaten in August. The kind of
caterpillars eaten is of more interest than the number. The jay
902 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
apparently likes to take its food in large morsels, and as in the case of
beetles, large larvee, like those of the humming-bird moths (Sphingi-
de), are selected whenever obtainable. In several cases a single spec-
imen of these caterpillars more than 2 inches in length and nearly
as large as one’s finger was snugly coiled up in the stomach, almost
filling the whole cavity. Eggs of insects were frequent, and those of
the tent caterpillar moth (Clisiocampa americana) occurred in four
ceases. Dy. J. A. Allen has found these eggs in blue jay stomachs
(Auk, XII, Oct., 1895, p. 383), and many years ago Dr. J. P. Kirtland
called attention to the usefulness of this bird in destroying the larvae
of the tent caterpillar (Atlantic Monthly, XXV, Apr., 1870, p. 482).
Many of the smaller species of caterpillars were quite hairy, and
others rough and warty, showing that this does not render them
objectionable. Mr. E. Hl. Forbush credits the blue jay with eating
great numbers of eggs, pups, and larve of the gypsy moth, and ‘he
observed them carrying away the larvee, which are hairy caterpillars
of considerable size, apparently to feed their young. (Rept. on Gypsy
Moth, Mass. Board Agr., 1896, pp. 214, 215.)
Insects of several other orders were found in nearly every month,
and in July and August amounted to a little more than 11 per cent.
Iymenoptera were represented by wasps and a few ants. One stom-
ach contained a specimen of the pigeon horntail (Tremex columba), a
very injurious wood-boring insect. Diptera, or flies, were found in
only three stomachs. Wemiptera were represented by quite a num-
ber of stink bugs (Pentatomids), a few cicadas, and remains of coceids,
or bark lice, which were found in two stomachs. Spiders oceur fre-
quently, myriapods occasionally, and snail shells were found in
thirty-eight stomachs.
VEGETABLE FOOD.
As already stated, three-fourths of the blue jay’s food consists of
vegetable matter, which may be conveniently arranged in several.
groups: (1) Grain, mast, and seeds; (2) fruit; and, (3) miscellaneous.
LIST OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES FOUND IN STOMACHS OF THE BLUE JAY.
Grain and mast.—Corn, wheat, oats, buckwheat, acorns, chestnuts,
beechnuts, hazelnuts, sumae (his), knotweed (Polygonum), sorrel
(Rumen),
Fruit and miscellancous.—Apples, strawberries, currants (Ribes
rubrum), Mackberrics (Rubis), mulberries (Morus), blueberries ( Vac:
confi), huckleberries (Gaylussacia), wild cherries (Prunus serotind),
chokecherrios (Primus virginiana), wild grapes (Vitis cordifolia), serv-
ice berries (Ainelanchier canadensis), elderberries (Sambucus cand
densis), sour-gum berries (Nyssa aquatica), hawthorn (Crategus),
chokeherries (Aronia arbulifolia), pokeberries (Phylolacca decandra),
oak galls, mushrooms, tubers.
THE BLUE JAY AND ITS FOOD. 203
Grain is naturally one of the most important groups, and may be
considered first. Wheat, oats, and buckwheat occur so seldom and
in such small quantities (1.3 per cent of the whole food) that they
may be dismissed with slight comment. Wheat was found in only
eight stomachs, oats in two, and buckwheat in one. The wheat was
eaten in July, August, and September; oats in March and J uly, and
buckwheat in October. Corn was found in seventy-one stomachs,
and aggregates 17.9 per cent of the food of the year. This is less than
that eaten by the crow (21 per cent) or by the crow blackbird (35 per
cent). In January the amount consumed reached nearly 56 per cent.
It is perhaps fair to add, however, that about one-third uf the stom-
achs taken in that month were from birds shot at a corncrib when the
ground was covered with 3 feet of snow, and do not fairly represent
the food of the month. Corn was also found in considerable quan-
tities in February, April, May, and September.
Jan. | Feb.| Mar.| Apr. | May |June | July | Aug. |Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
oh
a
s
,
7
e
i
’
1
4
N
ay
A
?
,
: ;
SA [grey
Fic. 42.—Diagram showing the relative amounts of grain and mast eaten by the blue jay in each
month of the year.
Under the term “mast” are grouped large seeds of trees and shrubs,
such as acorns, chestnuts, beechnuts, and others less conspicuous to
the ordinary observer. Unlike corn, it formed a remarkably constant
element, and aggregated more than 42 per cent of the whole food of the
year. It was found in 168 stomachs, and varied from one-fourth to
three-fourths of the total food in every month except July and August.
The fact that it is eaten, not only in the late fall, winter, and early
spring, when other food may be hard to obtain, but also throughout
late spring, summer, and early fall, when fruit, grain, and insects are
abundant, would seem to show chat it is preferred. The consumption
of mast exceeds that of corn in every month except January, April,
July, and August; but only a small amount of either is eaten in these
last two months. The test as to whether corn is preferred to mast
204 YEARBOOK OF THE U. § DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
would seem to be furnished by the record in October and November.
It must be admitted that throughout most parts of the blue jay’s range
both corn and mast are equally accessible during these two months.
The cornfields are ripe for the harvest, and lie open and unprotected,
where the birds can gather their fill without Ict or hindrance. The
forests also furnish an incalculable quantity of acorns, chestnuts, chin-
quapins, and beechnuts, while the hedges and river banks teem with
hazelnuts, and there seems no reason why the jays should not eat the
food that they like. An examination of the stomachs will indicate
best what they have actually eaten (fig. 42). Seventy-two stomachs
taken in October show an average of over 64 per cent of mast, and
eleven collected in November nearly 82 per cent, while the corn in each
month aggregates only 1.1 and 0.9 per cent, respectively. It seems
searcely possible to draw any other conclusion than that the blue jays
prefer mast to corn, or indeed to any other vegetable food, for they eat
the greatest amount at a time when fruit, grain, and other things are
most abundant. The record for December shows that the taste for
inast, far from being satisfied, has rather increased, and attains its
maximum of almost 83 per cent; while only 10 per cent of corn has
been taken instead of several other seeds and fruits which were eaten
earlier in the season. It was the custom of the writer, at his home in
Massachusetts, to bait the blue jays in winter with chaff and corn in the
manner already mentioned, and he observed that the birds patronized
these feeding places only so long as the ground was completely covered
with snow. No sooner did any considerable area of bare surface ap-
pear than the corn was discarded and no more birds were seen on the
chaff until the earth was again covered with snow. The natural infer-
ence was that the jays found something on the bare ground, presumably
mast, which they preferred to corn. It is possible that this fondness
for mast may affect the distribution of certain trees to some extent.
A jay flying with a nut in its beak may drop it in mid-air or carry it
away and perhaps store it forfuture use. Acorns and other nuts may
be distributed in this way, and it is probable that many isolated oaks
and chestnuts owe their origin to accidents of this kind.
Jays show considerable taste in the choice of fruit. Apples were
eaten only during January, February, and March, and consequently
were merely frozen fruit left on the trees to decay, which should per-
haps be reckoned as refuse rather than food. In the month of Mareh
the consumption is greatest, amounting to more than 32 per cené.
Fresh fruit is eaten to a slight extent in May, but the quantity
increases rapidly in June, and attains more than 39 per cent in July,
and then gradually diminishes until it disappears entirely after
October. The jay is often included with other birds in the charge of
habitnal stealing of cultivated fruit. Discarding apples which have
no value, only four kinds of fruit are eaten which may be cultivated,
namely, strawberries, currants, blackberries, and mulberries. No
THE BLUE JAY AND ITS FOOD. 205
cultivated cherries or grapes were found. Strawberries were found in
three stomachs, currants in seven, blackberries in twenty-two, and
mulberries in five. This certainly does not show great depredations
upon fruit, even supposing that all the fruit was cultivated; but it is
probable, especially in the case of blackberries, that much of it was
wild.
Other vegetable substances were not eaten extensively, but appear
to have been taken merely in default of something better. Itis worthy
of notice that the sumac seeds eaten are those of the harmless staghorn
(Rhus hirta) and smooth sumac (Rhus glabra). Jays do not eat the
seeds of poison ivy (Rhus radicans) or poison sumac (Rhus vernix), and
in this respect differ greatly from the crow, the crow blackbird, and
some of the woodpeckers. These last, and probably many other birds,
feed largely upon sumac seeds during the winter, and thereby help to
disseminate these disagreeable and harmful shrubs. It seems a
little singular that a bird so fond of hard seeds as the jay should not
avail itself of this food, which ts always accessible in the colder
months, but it is fortunate that it does not eat the seeds of the poison-
ous species. Remains of galls which grow on oak leaves were found
in twelve stomachs, and possibly were eaten for the sake of the larve
which they contained. Fragments of mushrooms were identified in
seven stomachs, mostly taken in April and October.
“EXPERIMENTS ON A BLUE JAY IN CAPTIVITY.
The examination of stomach contents was supplemented by experi-
ments on a bird which had been in captivity but a few months and
had no acquired tastes. In eating, this jay held its food on the perch
usually with the right foot, but sometimes with both feet, and pro-
ceeded to tear it to pieces and devour it; hard substances, like kernels
of corn and acorns, were repeatedly hammered with the beak after the
manner of a woodpecker. It would eat dead mice to a certain extent,
_but did not appear to be extravagantly fond of them; it seldom or
never ate a whole one, and seemed to prefer the brains to any other
part. A live mouse was placed in the cage, but remained unmolested
for two days. The jay was kept supplied with mocking-bird food, of
which it ate freely,so that it was not hungry, and therefore selected
only such other food as was appetizing. It ate most insects and pre-
ferred them to vegetable food. Its preferences were not strongly
marked, although grasshoppers seemed to be the favorite insects, and
black crickets were refused. Among beetles, Scarabzeids were rather
preferred to Carabids or Tenebrionids, but all were eaten. Chrysome-
lids were generally rejected, and the potato beetle (Doryphora 10-
lineata) was always refused; the same was true of the elm leaf-beetle
(Galerucella luteola), but one 12-spotted cucumber beetle (Diabrotica
12-punctata) was eaten. Click beetles (Elaterids and Tenebrionids)
were apparently preferred to the long-horn beetles (Cerambycids).
206 YEARBOOK OF THE U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
On one oceasion a basin of water was placed in the cage contain-
ing several Carabids (Harpalus caliyinosus and H. pennsylvanicus),
one Cerambycid (Typocerus sinuatus), one potato beetle (Doryphora
10-lineatu), another Chrysomelid (Chrysochrus ‘awratus), one black
cricket, one large hairy caterpillar, and a large milleped (Julus).
The milleped was taken first, the Carabids next, and finally all the
insects were eaten except the Chrysomelids and the cricket.
Very large hard beetles, like Alaws oculatus, Hydrophilus triangu-
laris, and Passalus cornutus, were not often touched, but in default of
other insects were torn to pieces and the soft parts separated from the
harder portions. Stink bugs (Pentatomids) seemed to be relished, but
hairy caterpillars were only taken after most of the hair had been
beaten off. Cocoons of a tussock moth were torn open to get the
pupz, and the large green warty caterpillars of the Ailanthus moth
were eaten, but with no great relish. In several cases spiders were
selected in preference to insects. Myriapods and earthworms were
eaten less readily than sow bugs (Onvzscus).
The bird would eat corn and sprouted acorns, but did not seem to
care much for them. It ate apples, blackberries, and black raspber-
ries, but rejected red raspberries, strawberries, mulberries, and elder-
berries; it swallowed the pulp of grapes only after removing the skin
and seeds, and also ate a little peach pulp, but without great relish.
SUMMARY.
The most striking point in the study of the food of the blue jay is
the discrepancy between the testimony of field observers concerning |
the bird’s nest-robbing proclivities and the results of stomach exami- °
nations. The accusations of eating eggs and young birds are certainly
not sustained, and it is futile to attempt to reconcile the conflicting
statements on this point, which must be left until more accurate obser-
vations have been made. In destroying insects the jay undoubtedly
does much good. Most of the predaceous beetles which it eats do not
feed on other insects to any great extent. On the other hand, it de-
stroys some grasshoppers and caterpillars and many noxious beetles,
such as Scarabeeids, click beetles (Elaterids), weevils (Curculionids),
Buprestids, Chrysomelids, and Tenebrionids. The blue jay gathers
its fruit from nature’s orchard and vineyard, not from man’s; corn
is the only vegetable food for which the farmer suffers any loss, and
here the damage is small. In fact, the examination of nearly 300.
stomachs shows that the blue jay certainly does far more good than
harm.
U, 3. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
FARMERS’ BULLETIN No. 54.
SOME COMMON BIRDS
IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
BY
FE, La BEATS, B.S.,
FR racceenstosete
ASSISTANT ORNITHOLOGIST, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
[May, 1897.]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
CONTENTS
Introd nctioniceveerencee hacecwecesereseneenr sy ea nEeseweite=eyeiorete See
The cuckoos (Coceyzus americanus and C. crythrophthalmus) (fig. 1) -.---------+
Therwoodpeckersy (tits, 2-5) ecccsices axnesu saved santigeSeeey eetex sovewesewamees
The kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus): (fig. 6)s. oc.c2 eccan apexes ve deieeesyeressee
The phasbe:(Sayornis pNabe). he. Ds vex os ced decue senvercboe tase heesiacice sees
The bluejay (Cyanocilta cristata) (fig. 8). ----- 2 2-2. eee eee ce ee eee
DDG CHOW. C OOM GINCENCUNUS) sricwarcretsiapteniars. oicnrenarmeonme Seem ginko eerielew eee ace:
The hobolink, or ricebird (Dolichonyx oryzivrorus) (lig. 9)....-2-.------ 2-22 22+
The red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phaniceus) (fig. 10)......------+ +202 +2 +--+
The meadow lark, or old field lark (Stwrnella magna) (fig. 11).-----2---+---++-
The Baltimore oriole (Jeterus galbula) (fig. 12)......202.. 0.202.222.0222 222 eee
The crow blackbird, or grackle ((Quiscalus quiscula) (Gg AS a wase soe cee esos
The sparrows (igs 14). -2xecistes ce nes estes oi Wes cud yeccneeeicdanieuda ened Soe
The rose-breasted grosbeak (Zamelodia ludovieiana) (fig. 15). ---. - se
‘he: savalloaves Cig TON otras Serie oad ne citetecetea alle See gal taanleraetylatals
The cedarbird (.impelis cedrorum) (fig. 17)...2.2. 00.2022 0 2. ee ee eee ee eee:
The catbird ((aleoscoptes carolinensis) (fig. 18)... 222 eee ee eee eee
The brown thrasher (Marporhynchus rufus) (fig. 19).
The house wren (Troglodytes aédon) (fig. 20)
The robin (.Werula migratoria) (fig. 21)
The bluebird (Sialia sialis) (fig. 22)
2
SOME COMMON BIRDS IN THEIR RELATION
TO AGRICULTURE.
INTRODUCTION.
It has long been known that birds play an important part in relation
to agriculture, but there seems to be a tendency to dwell on the harm
they do rather than on the good. Whether a bird is injurious or bene-
ficial depends almost entirely upon what it eats, and in the case of
species which are unusually abundant or which depend in part upon the
farmer’s crops for subsistence the character of the food often becomes a
very practical question. If crows or blackbirds are seen in numbers
about cornfields, or if woodpeckers are noticed at work in an orchard, it
is perhaps not surprising that they are accused of doing harm. Careful
investigation, however, often shows that they are actually destroying
noxious insects, and also that even those which do harm at one season
may compensate for it by eating noxious species at another. Insects
are eaten at all times by the majority of land birds, and during the
breeding season most kinds subsist largely and rear their young exclu-
sively on this food. When insects are unusuaily plentiful, they are
eaten by many birds which ordinarily do not touch them. Even birds
of prey resort to this diet, and when insects are more easily obtained
than other fare, the smaller hawks and owls live on them almost entirely.
This was well illustrated during the recent plague of Rocky Mountain
locusts in the Western States, when it was found that locusts were
eaten by nearly every bird in the region, and that they formed almost
the entire food of a large majority of the species.
Within certain limits, birds feed upon the kind of food that is most
aecessible. Thus, as a rule, insectivorous birds eat the insects that are
most easily obtained, provided they do not have some peculiarly dis-
agreeable property. It is not probable that a bird habitually passes by
oue kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing, aud
there seems little evidence in support of the theory that the selection
of food is restricted to any particular species of insect, for it is evi-
dent that a bird eats those which by its own method of seeking are
most easily obtained. Thus, a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds
among the dead leaves and grass; a flycatcher, watching for its prey
from some vantage point, captures entirely different kinds; and the
4
woodpecker and warbler, in the tree tops, select still others. It is thus
apparent that a bird's diet is likely to be quite varied, and to differ at
different seasons of the year.
In investigating the food habits of birds, field observation can be
relied on only to a limited extent, for it is not always easy to determine
What a bird really cats by watching it. In order to be positive on this
point, it is necessary to cxamine the stomach contents. When birdsare
suspected of doing injury to field crops or fruit trees, a few individuals
should be shot and their stomachs examined. This will show unmis.
takably whether or not the birds are guilty.
In response to a general demand for definite information regarding
the food habits of our native birds, the Biological Survey of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture has for some years past been conducting a system-
atic investigation of the food of species which are believed to be of
economic importance. Thousands of birds’ stomachs have been care-
fully examined in the laboratory, and all the available data respect-
ing the food brought together. The results of the investigations
relating to birds of prey, based on an examination of nearly 3,000
stomachs, were published in 1893, in a special bulletin entitled The
Hawks and Owls of the United States. Many other species have been
similarly studied and the results published, either in special bulletins
or as articles in the yearbooks. ‘Che present bulletin contains brief
abstracts of the results of food studies of about 30 grain and insect
eating birds belonging to 10 different families.!
These species comprise among others the crow blackbirds and rice-
birds, against which serious complaints have been made on account of
the damage they do to corn, wheat, rice, and other crops; and also the
cuckoos, grosbeaks, and thrashers, which are generally admitted to be
beueficial, but whose true value as insect destroyers has not been fully
appreciated. The practical value of birds in controlling insect pests
should be more generally recognized. It may be an easy matter to
exterminate the birds in an orchard or grain tield, but it isan extremely
difficult one to control the insect pests. It is certain, too, that the
value of our native sparrows as weed destroyers is not appreciated.
Weed sced forms an importantitem of the winter food of many of these
birds, and it is impossible to estimate the immense numbers of noxious
weeds which are thus annually destroyed.
ie case ected el et santo alae cae in Sein SE pe
‘Tho limits of this bulletin preclude givine more than a very brief statement
regarding the food of each hird, but more detailed accounts of some of the species
will be found in the following reports of the Biological Survey (formerly Division
of Ornithology «nd Mammalogy): The Crow—Bulletin No, 6, 1895, pp. 1-983. Wooll-
pockors—Bulletin No. 7, 1895, pp. 1-39; Kingbird—Annual Repork Secreta of
Agriculture, for 1893, pp. 233-234; Baltimore Oriole—Yearbook United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture for 1X95, pp. 426-430; Grackles—Vearbook for 1894, pp. 233-248;
Meadowlark—Yearbook for 1895, pp. 420-126; Cedarhird—Annnal Report Secretary
of Agriculture, for 1892, pp. 197-200; Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and \Wren—Yearbook
for 1895, pp. 405-418.
5
If birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and gar-
den, they will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds,
and a few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds, martins, and
wrens will prove a good investment. Birds are protected by law in
many States, but it remains for the agriculturists to see that the laws
are faithfully observed.
THE CUCKOOS.
(Coecyzus americanus and C. erythrophthalmus.)
Two species of cuckoos, the yellow-billed (fig. 1) and the black-billed,
are common in the United States east of the Plains, and a subspecies
of the yellow-billed extends westward to the Pacific. While the two
species are quite distinct, they do not differ greatly in food habits, and
their economic status is practically the same.
NYS
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a f fe Vy ZI ths
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Fia. 1.—Yellow-billed cuckoo.
An examination of 37 stomachs has shown that these cuckoos are
much given to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject
those covered with hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so many hairy cater-
pillars that the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain
there, so that when the stomach is opened and turned inside out, it
appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur.
An examination of the stomachs of 16 black-billed cuckoos, taken
during the summer months, showed the remains of 328 caterpillars, 11
beetles, 15 grasshoppers, 63 sawflies, 3 stink bugs, and 4 spiders. In
all probability more individuals than these were represented, but their
remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the cater-
pillars were hairy, and many of them belonged to a genus that lives in
colonies and feeds on the leaves of trecs, including the apple tree.
One stomach was filled with larve of a caterpillar belonging to the
6
same genus as the tent caterpillar, and possibly to that species. Other
larvee were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to have a
special fondness. The beetles were for the most part click beetles and
weevils, with a few May beetles and some others. The sawflies were
all found in two stomachs, one of which contained no less than 60 in
the larval stage.
Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 21 stomachs (collected from May to
October, inclusive) were examined. The contents consisted of 355
caterpillars, 18 beetles, 23 grasshoppers, 31 sawilies, 14 bugs, 6 flies,
and 12 spiders. As in the case of the black-billed cuckoo, most of the
caterpillars belonged to hairy species and many of them were of large
size. One stomach contained 12 American tent caterpillars; another
217 fall webworms. The beetles were distributed among several
families, but all more or Jess harmful to agriculture. In the same
stomach which contained the tent caterpillars were two Colorado potato
beetles; in another were three goldsmith beetles and remains of several
other large beetles. Besides ordinary grasshoppers were several katy-
dids and tree crickets. The sawflies were in the larval stage, in
which they resemble caterpillars so closely that they are commonly
called false caterpillars by entomologists, and perhaps this likeness
may be the reason the cuckoos eat them so freely. The bugs consisted
of stink bugs and cicadas or dog-day harvest flies, with the single excep-
tion of one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten, unless
the spiders be counted as such.
THE WOODPECKERS.
Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout
the eastern United States, and in the west are replaced by others of
similar habits. Several species remain in the northern States through
the entire year, while others are more or less migratory.°
Farmers are prone to look upon woodpeckers with suspicion. When
the birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark,
and fresh holes are found in the tree, it is concluded that they are
doing harm. Careful observers, however, have noticed that, excepting
a single species, these birds rarely leave any important mark on a
healthy tree, but that when a tree is affected by wood-boring larve
the insects are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured. In case
the holes from which the borers are taken are afterwards occupied
and enlarged by colonies of ants, these ants in turn are drawn out and
eaten, :
Two of the best known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker (Dryo-
bates villosus) (fig. 2) and the downy woodpecker (J). pubescens), inelud-
ing their races, range over the greater part of the United States, and
for the most part remain throughont the year in their usual haunts.
They differ chiefly in size, for their colors are practically the same, and
the males, like other woodpeckers, are distinguished by a scarlet patch
ms
ri
An examination of many stomachs of these two birds shows that
from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, chiefly
noxious. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larve, are conspicu-
ous, and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly species
that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that live in
decaying wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in
great quantities. Many ants are particularly harmful to timber, for if
they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of some wood-
borer, they enlarge the hole, and as their colony is always on the
increase, continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is honey-
ea
B
~
Fic. 2.—Hairy woodpecker.
combed. Moreover, these insects are not accessible to other birds, and
could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not that
the woodpeckers, with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such
work, dig out and devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers
are great conservators of forests. To them, more than to any other
agency, we owe the preservation of timber from hordes of destructive
insects.
One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or
golden-winged woodpecker (Colaptes auratus) (fig. 3), which is generally
distributed thy ited States from the Atlantic Coast to
8
the Rocky Mountains. Ft is there replaced by the red-shatted flicker
(C. cafer), which extends westward to the L’acific. The two species are
as nearly identical in food habits as their environment will allow. The
flickers, while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits from the
rest of the family, and are frequently seen upon the ground searching
for food. Like the downy aud hairy woodpeckers, they eat wood-boring
grubs and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much greater. Twoof
the flickers’ stomachs examined were completely filled with ants, each
stomach containing more than 3,000 individuals. These ants belonged
to species which live in the ground, and it is these insects for which the
flicker is searching when running about in the grass, although some
grasshoppers are also taken.
Tia. 6,—Flicker.
‘Fhe red headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) (tig. 4) 38 well
known castof the Rocky Mountains, but is rather rare in New England.
Unlike some of the other species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph
poles to trees asa foraging ground, Its food therefore naturally dif-
fers from that of the preceding species, and consists largely of adult
beetles and wasps, which it frequently captures on the wing, after the
fashion of flyeatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of
the food. The redhead has a peculiar habit of selecting very larg®
beetles, as shown by the presence of fragments of several of the largest
species in the stomachs. Among the beetles were quite a number of
predaceous ground beetles, and unfortunately some tiger beetles, which
are useful insects. Theredhead has been nceused of robbing the nests
i]
of other birds; also of attacking young birds and poultry and pecking
out their brains, but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substan-
tiate this charge it is probable that the habit is rather exceptional.
It has been customary to speak of the smaller woodpeckers as “sap-
suckers,” under the belief that they drill holes in the bark of trees for
the purpose of drinking the sap and eating the inner bark. Close obser-
vation, however, has fixed this habit upon only one species, the yellow-
bellied woodpecker, or sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) (fig 5). This bird
has been shown to be guilty of pecking holes in the bark of various forest
trees, aod sometimes in that of apple trees, from which it drinks the sap
AN ay
tn cil WM
Zh 7
a Y/
Fic. 4.—Red-headed woodpecker.
when the pits become filled. It has been proved, however, that besides
taking the sap the bird captures large numbers of insects which are
attracted by the sweet fluid, and that these form a very considerable
portion of its diet. In some cases the trees are injured by being thus
punctured, and die in a year or two, but since comparatively few are
touched the damage is not great. Itis equally probable, moreover, that
the bird fully compensates for this injury by the insects it consumes.
The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of
small fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such
fruits as dogwood, Virginia creeper, and others, with the seeds of
10
poison ivy, sumac, and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great
many small fruits and the seeds of a considerable number of shrubs
and weeds. None of the three species is much given to eating culti-
vated fruits or crops.
The redhead has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit,
such as apples, and also of taking considerable corn. The stomach
examinations show that to some extent these charges are substantiated,
but that the habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. It
is quite fond of mast, especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are
roast £
act
i
aS
i
H
Fira. 5.—Yellow-bellicd woodpecker.
plentiful the birds remain north all winter, instead of migrating as is
their usual custom.
Half the food of the sapsucker, aside from sap, consists of vegetable
matter, largely berries of the kinds already mentioned, and also a quan-
tity of the inner bark of trees, more of which is eaten by this species
than by any other.
Many other woodpeckers are found in America, but their food habits
agree in the main with those just described. These birds are certainly
11
the only agents which can successfully cope with certain insect enemies
of the forests, and, to some extent, of fruit tree salso. For this reason,
if for no other, they should be protected in every possible way.
THE KINGBIRD.
(Tyrannus tyrannus.)
The kingbird (fig. 6) is essentially a lover of the orchard, and wher-
ever the native groves have been replaced by fruit trees this pugna-
cious bird takes up its abode. It breeds in all of the States east of
the Rocky Mountains, and less commonly in the Great Basin and on
the Pacific Coast. It migrates south early in the fall, and generally
leaves the United States to spend the winter in more southern latitudes.
Nee
Bia. 6.—Kingbird.
The kingbird manifests its presence in many ways. It is somewhat
boisterous and obtrusive, and its antipathy for hawks and crows is well
known. It never hesitates to give battle to any of these marauders,
no matter how superior in size, and for this reason a family of king-
birds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion In
the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young
turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of king-
birds, whose nest was near by, that the would-be robber was glad to
escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are
similarly protected.
In its food habits this species is largely insectivorous. Itisa true fly-
catcher by nature, and takes a large part of its food on the wing. It
12
does not, however, vonfine itself to this method of hunting, but picks
up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground
in search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against
the kingbird is that it preys largely. upon honeybees; and this charge
has been made both by professional bee keepers and others. Many
observers have seen the bird at work near hives, and there is no
reason to doubt the honesty of their testimony. One bee raiser in
Towa, suspecting the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number
near his hives, but when the birds’ stomachs were examined by an
expert entomologist not a trace of honeybees could be found.
The Biological Survey has made an examination of 281 stomachs col-
lected in various parts of the country, but found only 14 containing
remains of honeybees. In these 14 stomachs there were in all 50 honey-
bees, of which 40 were drones, 4 were certainly workers, and the
remaining 6 were too badly broken to be identified as to sex.
The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are
noxious species, largely beetles—May beetles, click beetles (the larve
of which are known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and
grain, and ahost of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous
elements of the food, far outuumbering the hive bees. During summer
many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs,
are also eaten. Among the flies were a number of robber flies—insects
which prey largely upon other insects, especially honeybees, and which
have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations. It is
thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these flies actually does
good work for the apiarist. Nineteen robber flies were found in the
stomachs examined; these may be considered more than an equiva-
lent for the four worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpil-
lars are eaten, mostly belonging to the group commonly known as
cutworms, all the species of which are harmful. About 10 per cent
of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising some twenty
common species of the roadsides and thickets, such as dogwood berries,
elder berries, and wild grapes. The bird has not been reported -as
eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if
this is ever the case, for cherries and blackberries are the only ones that
might have come from cultivated places, and they were found in but
few stomachs.
Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food of
the kingbird—(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly
injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees
is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not
result in any great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists
almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. These
facts, taken in connection with its well-known enmity for hawks and
crows, entitle the kingbird to a place among the most desirable birds
of the orchard or garden.
13
THE PHGBE.
(Sayornis phabe.)
Among the early spring arrivals at the North, noneare more welcome
than the pheebe (fig. 7). Though naturally building its nest under an
overhanging cliff of rock or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, its prefer-
ence for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more
thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great
distance from a farmhouse except where a bridge spans some stream,
affording a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition has ren-
dered it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. It
breeds throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and
winters from the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward.
Fig. 7.—Phoebe.
The phuebe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which
are caught upon the wing. An examination of 80 stomachs showed
that over 93 per cent of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders,
while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly
to noxious species, and include many click beetles, May beetles, and
weevils. Grasshoppers in their season are eaten to a considerable
extent, while wasps of various species, many flies of species that annoy
cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten reguarly. Itis evident
that a pair of phoebes must materially reduce the number of insects
near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, raise two broods
a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young. ; ;
The vegetable portion of the food is unimportant, an d consists mainly
of a few seeds, with small fruits, such as wild cherries, elder berries, and
14
juniper berries. The raspberries and blackberries found in the stom-
achs were the only fruits that might have belonged to cultivated varie-
ties, and the quantity was trifling.
There is hardly a more useful species than the phoebe about the farm,
and it should receive every cucouragement. To furnish nesting boxes
is unnecessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed,
or a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from cats and
other marauders.
THE BLUE JAY.
(Cyanoeitta cristata.)
The blue jay (tig. 8) is a common bird of the United States east of the
Great Plains, and remains throughout the year in most of its range,
although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the Northern
States. During spring and summer the jay is forced to become an
Fig. 8.—Blue jay.
industrious hunter for insects, and is not so conspicuous a feature of
the landscape as when it roams the country at will after the cares of
the nesting season are over.
Ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a consider-
able portion of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs
and young of small birds, and some tarmers accuse it of stealing corn
to an injurious extent in the fall. While there may be some truth in
these accusations, they have almost certainly been exaggerated. No
doubt many jays have been observed robbing nests of other birds, but
thousands have been seen that were not so engaged.
In an investigation of the food of the blue jay 292 stomachs were
examined, which showed that animal matter comprised 24 per cent and
vegetable matter 76 per cent of the bird’s diet. So much has been said
about the nest-robbing habits of the jay that special search was made for
traces of birds or birds’ eggs in the stomachs, with the result that shells
15
of small birds’ eggs were found in three and the remains of young
birds in only two stomachs. Such negative evidence is not sufficient
to controvert the great mass of testimony upon this point, but it shows
that the habit is not so prevalent as has been believed. Besides birds
and their eggs, the jay eats mice, fish, salamanders, snails, and crusta-
ceans, which altogether constitute but little more than 1 per cent of its
diet. The insect food is made up of beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars,
and a few species of other orders, all noxious, except some 34 per
cent of predaceous beetles. Thus something more than 19 per cent
of the whole food consists of harmful insects. In August the jay, like
many other birds, turns its attention to grasshoppers, which constitute
nearly one-fifth of its food during that month. At this time, also,
most of the other noxious insects, including caterpillars, are consumed,
though beetles are eaten chiefly in spring.
The vegetable food is quite varied, but the item of most interest is
grain. Corn was found in 70 stomachs, wheat in 8, and oats in 2—all
constituting 19 per cent of the total food. Corn is evidently the favorite
grain, but a closer inspection of the record shows that the greater part
was eaten during the first five months of the year, and that very little
was taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abundant.
This indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after
harvest, except what is stolen from cribs or gathered in May at planting
time.
The jay’s favorite food is mast (i. e., acorns, chestnuts, chinquapins,
etc.), which was found in 158 of the 292 stomachs and amounted to
more than 42 per cent of the whole food. In September corn formed
15 and mast 35 per cent, while in October, November, and December
corn dropped to an almost inappreciable quantity and mast amounted
to 64, 82, and 83 per cent, respectively. And yet in these months corn
is abundant and everywhere easily accessible. The other elements of
food consist of a few seeds and wild fruits, among which grapes and
blackberries predominate.
The results of the stomach examination show, (1) that the jay eats
many noxious insects; (2) that its habit of robbing the nests of other
birds is much less common than has been asserted; and (3) that it does
little harm to agriculture, since all but a small amount of the corn eaten
is waste grain.
THE CROW.
(Corvus americanus.)
There are few birds so well known as the common crow, and unlike
most other species he does not seem to decrease in numbers as the
country becomes more densely populated. The crow is commonly
regarded as a blackleg and a thief. Without the dash and brilliancy
of the jay, or the bold savagery of the hawk, he is accused of doing
more mischief than either. That he does pull up sprouting corn, de-
stroy chickens, and rob the nests of small birds has been repeatedly
16
proved. Nor are these all of his sins. He is known to eat frogs, toads,
salamanders, and some small snakes, all harmless creatures that do
some good by eating insects. With so many charges against him, it
may be well to show why he should not be utterly condemned.
The examination of a large number of stomachs, while confirming all
the foregoing accusations, has thrown upon the subject a light some-
what different from that derived solely from field observation. It shows
that the bird’s-nesting habit, as in the case of the jay, is not so univer.
sal as has been supposed; and that, so far from being a habitual nest
robber, the crow only occasionally indulges in that reprehensible prac-
tice. The same is true in regard to destroying chickens, for he is able
to carry off none but very young ones, and his opportunities for cap-
turing them are somewhat limited. Neither are many toads and frogs
eaten, and as froes are of no great practical value, their destruction is
not a serious matter; but toads are very useful, and their consumption,
so far as it goes, must be counted against the crow. Turtles, crayfishes,
and snails, of which he eats quite a large number, may be considered
neutral, while mice may be counted to his credit.
In his insect food, however, the crow makes amends for sins in the
rest of his dietary, although even here the first item is against him.
Predaceous beetles are eaten in some numbers throughout the season,
but the number is not great. May beetles, ‘dor-bugs,” or June bugs,
and others of the same family, constitute the principal food during
spring and early summer, and are fed to the young in immense quanti-
ties. Other beetles, nearly all of a noxious character, are eaten toa
considerable extent. Grasshoppers are first taken in May, but not in
large numbers until August, when, as might be expected, they form the
leading article of diet, showing that the crow is no exception to the
general rule that most birds subsist, to a large extent, upon grasshop-
pers in the month of August. Many bugs, some caterpillars, mostly
cutworms, and some spiders are also eaten—all of them either harmful
or neutral in their economic relations. Of the insect diet Mr. E. A.
Schwarz says: “The facts, on the whole, speak overwhelmingly in favor
of the crow.”
Probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn, and
by pulling up the newly sprouted seeds the bird renders himself
extremely obnoxious. Observation and experiments with tame crows
show that hard, dry corn is never eaten if anything else is to be had,
and if fed to nestlings it is soon disgorged. The reason crows resort
to newly planted fields is that the kernels of corn are softened by the
moisture of the earth, and probably become more palatable in the proc-
ess of germination, which changes the starch of the grain to sugar.
The fact, however, remains that crows eat corn extensively only when
it has been softened by germination or partial decay, or before it is ripe
and still “in the milk.” Experience has shown that they may be pre-
vented from pulling up young corn by tarring the seed, which not only
saves the corn but forces them to turn their attention to insects. If
17
they persist in eating green corn it is not so easy to prevent the damage;
but no details of extensive injury in this way have yet been presented,
and it is probable that no great harm has been done.
Crows eat fruit to some extent, but confine themselves for the most
part to wild species, such as dogwood, sour gum, and seeds of the
different kinds of sumac. They have also a habit of sampling almost
everything which appears eatable, especially when food is scarce. For
example, they eat frozen apples found on the trees in winter, or pump-
kins, turnips, and potatoes which have been overlooked or neglected ;
even mushrooms are sometimes taken, probably in default of something
better.
In estimating the economic status of the crow, it must be acknowl-
edged that he does some damage, but, on the other hand, he should
receive much credit for the insects which he destroys. In the more
thickly settled parts of the country the crow probably does more good
than harm, at least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect
young poultry and newly-planted corn against his depredations. If,
however, corn is planted with no provision against possible marauders,
if hens and turkeys are allowed to nest and to roam with their broods
at a distance from farm buildings, losses must be expected.
THE BOBOLINK, OR RICEBIRD.
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus.)
The bobolink (fig. 9) is a common summer resident of the United
States, north of about latitude 40°, and from New England westward to
the Great Plains, wiutering beyond our southern border. In New
England there are few birds, if any, around which so much romance
has clustered; in the South none ou whose head so many maledictions
have been heaped. The bobolink, entering the United States trom the
South at a time when the rice fields are freshly sown, pulls up the young
plants and feeds upon the seed. Its stay, however, is not long, and it
soon hastens northward, where it is welcomed as a herald of summer.
During its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects
and small seeds of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects
constitute its chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood.
After the young are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock
and begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists
for the most part of weed seeds, since in the North these birds do not
appear to molest grain to any greatextent. They eata few oats, but their
stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain. As
the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward,
until by the end of August nearly all have left their breeding grounds.
On their way they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of
rivers and on the inland waters of the coast region, subsisting largely
upon wild rice. After leaving the Northern States they are commonly
known as reed birds, and having become very fat are treated as game.
15620—No. 54-2
18
They begin to arrive on the rice fields in the latter part of August,
and during the next month make havoc in the ripening crop. It is
unfortunate that the rice districts lie exactly in the track of their fall
migration, since the abundant supply of food thus offered has undoubt-
edly served to attract them more and more, until most of the bobolinks
bred in the North are concentrated with disastrous effect on the south-
east coast when the rice ripens in the fall. There was evidently a time
when no such supply of food awaited the birds on their journey south-
ward, and it seems probable that the introduction of rice culture in the
South, combined with the clearing of the forests in the North, thus afford-
ing a larger available breeding area, has favored an increase in the
Tia. 9.—Bobolink.
numbers of this species. he food habits of the bobolink are not nec-
essarily inimical to the interests of agriculture. 16 simply happens that
the rice affords a supply of food more easily obtainable than did the
wild plants which formerly occupicd the same region. Were the rice
fields at a distance from the line of migration, or north of the bobolinks’
breeding ground, they wowd probably never be molested; but lying;
as they do, directly in the path of migration, they form a reeruiting
ground, where the birds van rest and accumulate flesh and strength for
the long sea flight which awaits them in their course to South America.
The annual loss to rice growers on account of bobolinks has beet
estimated at $2,000,000. In the face of such losses it is evident that
19
no mere poetical sentiment should stand in the way of applying any
remedy which can be devised. It would be unsafe to assume that the
insects which the birds consume during their residence in the North
can compensate for such destruction. If these figures are any approxi-
mation to the truth, the ordinary farmer will not believe that the
bobolink benetits the Northern half of the country nearly as much as
it damages the Southern half, and the thoughtful ornithologist will be
inclined to agree with him. But even if the bird really does more harm
than good, what is the remedy? For years the rice planters have been
employing men and boys to shoot the birds and drive them away from
the fields, but in spite of the millions slain every year their numbers
do not decrease. In fact, a large part of the loss sustained is not in the
grain which the birds actually eat, but in the outlay necessary to pre-
vent them from taking it all, At present there seems to be no effective
remedy short of complete extermination of the species, and this is
evidently impracticable even were it desirable.
THE REDWINGED BLACKBIRD.
(Agelaius phaniceus.)
The redwinged, or swamp, blackbird (fig. 10) is found all over the
United States and the region immediately to the north. While com-
mon in most of its range, its distribution is more or less local, mainly
on account of its partiality for swamps. Its nest is built near standing
water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the
bird may be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps
or marshes suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies,
though single families, consisting of a male with several wives, may
sometimes be found in a small slough, where each of the females builds
her nest and rears her own little brood, while her liege lord displays his
brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the Upper Mississippi
Valley it finds the conditions most favorable, for the countless prairie
sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes form nesting
sites for thousands of redwings; and there are bred the immense flocks
which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the West.
After the breeding season is over, the birds collect in flocks to migrate,
and remain (hus associated throughout the winter.
Many complaints have been made against the redwing, and several
States have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause
great damage to grain in the West, especially in the Upper Mississippi
Valley; and the rice growers of the South say that it eats rice. No
complaints have been received from the Northeastern portion of the
country, where the bird is much less abundant than in the West and
South.
An examination of 725 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms
74 per cent of the food, while the animal matter, mainly insects, forms
20
but 26 per cent. A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles,
mostly harmful species. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 4 per
cent of the year’s food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are
among the most harmful insects known, their destruction should con-
done for at least some of the sins of which the bird has been accused,
Grasshoppers constitute nearly 5 per cent of the food, while the rest of
the animal matter is made up of various insects, a few snails, and crus-
taceans. Several dragon flies were found, but these were probably
picked up dead, for they are tco active to be taken alive, unless by one
of the flycatchers. So far as the insect food as a whole is concerned,
the redwing may be cousidered entirely beneficial.
The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around the
Pig, 10.—-Redwinged blackbird,
grain, Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in appre
ciable quantities in the stomachs, and they aggregate but little more
than 13 per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this
amount. In view of the many complaints that the redwing eats grain,
this record is surprisingly small. The crow blackbird has been found to
eat more than three times as much. In the case of the crow, corn forms
one-fifth of the food, so that the redwinged blackbird, whose diet is made
up of only a trifle more than one-eighth of grain, is really one of the
least destructive species; but the most important item of this bird’s
food is weed seed, which forms practically the whole food in winter and
about 57 per cent of the whole year’s fare. The principal weed seeds
21
eaten are those of ragweed, barn grass, smartweed, and about a dozen
others. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the
birds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily accessi-
ble, and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful
in April. The redwing eats very little fruit and does practically no
harm in the garden or orchard.
While it is impossible to dispute the mass of testimony which has
accumulated concerning its grain-eating propensity, the stomach exam-
inations show that the habit must be local rather than general. As
the area of cultivation increases and the breeding grounds are cur-
tailed, the species is likely to become reduced in numbers and conse-
quently less harmful. Nearly seven-eighths of the redwing’s food is
made up of weed seed or of insects injurious to agriculture, indicating
unmistakably that the bird should be protected, except, perhaps, in a
few places where it is too abundant.
THE MEADOW LARK, OR OLD FIELD LARK.
(Sturnella magna.)
The nieadow lark (fig. 11) is a common and well-known bird occurring
from the Atlantic Coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to
a closely related subspecies, which extends thence westward to the
Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far north as the Dis-
trict of Columbia, southern Ilinois, aud occasionally Iowa. Although
it is a bird of the plains, finding its most congenial haunts in the
prairies of the West, it does not disdain the meadows and mowing
lands of New England. It nests on the ground and is so terrestrial
in its habits that it seldom perches on trees, preferring a fence rail or
a telegraph pole. When undisturbed, it may be seen walking about
with a peculiar dainty step, stopping every few moments to look about
and give its tail a nervous flirt or to sound a note or two of its clear
whistle.
The meadow lark is almost wholly beneficial, although a few com-
plaints have been made that it pulls sprouting grain, and ove farmer
claims that it eats clover seed. As a rule, however, it is looked upon
with favor and is not disturbed.
In the 238 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects)
constituted 73 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 27 per
cent. As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species,
such as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies,
wasps, and spiders. A number of the stomachs were taken from birds
that had been killed when the ground was covered with snow, but still
they contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird’s skill
in finding proper food under adverse circumstances.
Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most
important, constituting 29 per cent of the entire year’s food and 69 per
cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon
22
this point, but it can readily be seen wna an effect a number of these
birds must have on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper
season. Of the 238 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 178,
or more than two-thirds, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one
was filled with fragments of 37 of these insects. ‘This seems to show
conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred and are eaten whenever
they can be proenred. The great number taken in August is especially
noticeable. This is essentially the grasshopper month, i. e., the month
when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance; and the stomach
examination has shown that a large number of birds resort to this diet
in August, no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year.
Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of
the meadow lark’s food, amounting to nearly 21 per cent, of which about
one-third are predaceous ground beetles. The others are all harmful
Fic, 11.—Meadow lark.
species, and when it is considered that the bird feeds exclusively on the
ground, it seems remarkable that so few useful ground beetles are eaten.
Many of them have a disgusting odor, and possibly this may occasion-
ally save them from destruction by birds, especially when other food is
abundant. Caterpillars, too, form a very constant element, and in May
constitute over 28 per cent of the whole food. May is the month when
the dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career, and then the bird does
“some of its best work. Most. of these caterpillars are ground feeders,
and are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees; but the
meadow lark finds them and devours them by thousands, The remait-
der of the insect food is made up of a few ants, wasps, and spiders, with
a few bugs, including some chinch bugs.
The vegetable food consists of grain, weed, and other hard seeds.
Grain in general amounts to 14, and weed and other seeds to 12 per cent.
23
The grain, principally corn, is mostly eaten in winter and early spring,
and must be therefore simply waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed
in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprout-
ing grain was discovered. Clover seed was found in only six stomachs,
and but little ineach. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barn grass,
and smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during
the rest of the year are replaced by insects.
Brietly stated, more than half of the meadow lark’s food consists of
harmfulinsects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds
or waste grain, and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neu-
tral insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird’s favor is that,
although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable food,
and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather any farther
than is necessary to find ground free from snow. This explains why it
remains for the most part in the United States during winter, and
moves northward as soon as the snow disappears from its usual haunts.
There is one danger to which the meadow lark is exposed. As its
flesh is highly esteemed the bird is often shot for the table, but it is
entitled to all possible protection, and to slaughter it for game is the
least profitable way to utilize a valuable species.
THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
(Icterus galbula.)
Brillianey of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which
no exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of
the Baltimore oriole (fig. 12). In summer this species is found through-
out the northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains,
and is welcomed and loved in every country home in that broad land.
In the Northern States it arrives rather late, and is usually first seen,
or heard, foraging amidst the early bloom of the apple trees, where it
searches for caterpillars or feeds daintily on the surplus blossoms.
Its nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its
plumage or the excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the
outermost bough of a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible, and so
strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements.
By watching an oriole which has a nest one may see it searching
among the smaller branches of some neighboring tree, carefully exam-
ining each leaf for caterpillars, and occasionally trilling a few notes to
its mate. Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that
caterpillars constitute the largest item of its fare. In 113 stomachs
they formed 34 per cent of the food, and are eaten in varyin g quantities
during all the months in which the bird remains in this country,
although the fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit is also taken.
The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers,
and some spiders. The beetles are principally click beetles, the larvee
of which are among the most destructive insects known; and the bugs
: 24
include plant and bark li¢e, both very harmful, but so small and
obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten
mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and
spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season.
Vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than 16 per cent of
the food during the bird’s stay in the United States, so that the possi-
bility of the oriole doing much damage to crops is very limited. The bird
has been accused of eating peas to a considerable extent, but remains
of peas were found in only two stomacrs. One writer says that it
damages grapes, but none were found. In fact, a few blackberries and
Dh
Lf
Fia@. 12.—Baltimore oriole.
cherries comprised the only cultivated fruit detected in the stomachs,
the remainder of the vegetable food being wild fruit and a few miscel-
laneous seeds.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD, OR GRACKLE.
(Quiscalus quiscula.)
The crow blackbird (fig. 13) or one of its subspecies is a familiar
object in all of the States east of the Rocky Mountains, Itis a resi-
dent throughout the year as far north as southern Illinois, and in sum-
mer extends its range into British America. In the Mississippi Valley
it is one of the most abundant birds, preferring to nest in the artificial
groves and windbreaks near farms instead of the natural “timber”
which it formerly used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings,
often in considerable colonies. Farther east, in New England, it is only
locally abundant, though frequently seen in migration. After July it
25
becomes very rare, or entirely disappears, owing to the fact that it col-
lects in large flocks and retires to some quiet place, where food is
abundant and where it can remain undisturbed during the molting
season, but in the latter days of August and throughout September it
usually reappears in immense numbers before moving southward.
It is evident that a bird so large and so abundant may exercise an
important influence upon the agricultural welfare of the country it
inhabits. The crow blackbird has been accused of many sins, such as
stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds; but the
farmers do not undertake any war of extermination against it, and,
for the most part, allow it to nest about the premises undisturbed. An
examination of 2,258 stomachs showed that nearly one-third of its food
consists of insects, of which the greater part are injurious. The bird
Fig. 13.—Crow blackbird.
also eats a few snails, crayfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasion-
ally a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other
birds’ nests to any great extent, as remains of birds and birds’ eggs
amount to less than one-half of 1 per cent.
It is, however, on account of its vegetable food that the grackle is
most likely to be accused of doing damage. Grain is eaten during the
whole year, and during only a short time in summer is other food
attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken
in the winter and spring months probably consists of waste kernels
gathered from the stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird
pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August, and
the corn eaten in the fall, are probably taken from fields of standing
26
grain. The total grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per
cent of the whole food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste
grain, and consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird
eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, and some wild
fruit in the fall, it apparently does no damage in this way.
Large flocks of crow blackbirds no doubt do considerable injury to
grain crops, and there seems to be no remedy except the destruction
of the birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season,
however, the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding
them to its young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food.
The bird does the greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows
the plow in search of large grub worms, of which it is so fond that it
sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them. The farmer must
decide for himself whether or not these birds cause more damage than
can be repaid by insect destruction; but when they destroy an entire
crop it is no consolation to know that they have already eaten a multi-
tude of insects which, if left alone, would have accomplished the same
result.
THE SPARROWS!
Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action.
There are some forty species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North
America, but their differences, both in plumage and habits, are in
most cases too obscure to be readily recognized, and not more than
half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality. All the
species are more or less migratory, but so widely are they distributed
that there is probably no part of the country where some can not be
found throughout the year.
While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means
confine themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and
especially in the breeding season, they eat many insects, and probably
feed their young largely upon the same food. An examination of the
stomachs of three species—the song sparrow (Melospiza), chipping
sparrow (Spizella socialis), and field sparrow (Spizella pusilla) (fig. 14)—
shows that about one-third of the food consists of insects, comprising
many injurious beetles, such as snout-beetles or weevils, and leaf-beetles.
Many grasshoppers are eaten, and in the case of the chipping sparrow
these insects form one-eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would seem
to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to the
smaller species; indeed, this is indicated by the fact that the greatest
amount (over 36 per cent) is eaten in J une, when the larger species are
still young and the small species most numerous. Besides the insects
already mentioned, many wasps and bugs are taken. Predaceous and
parasitic Ilymenoptera and predaceous beetles, all useful insects, ar
'The sparrows here mentioned aro all native species. For a full account of the
English sparrow, including its introduction, habits, and dopredations, seo Bull. No.1
of the Division of Ornithology, published in 1889.
27
eaten only to a slight extent, so that as a whole the sparrows’ insect
diet may be considered beneficial.
Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds
This might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon
grain, but the stomachs examined show only one kind—oats—and_ but
little of that. The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed
seed, which form almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount
consumed is immense.
Anyone acquainted with the agricultural region of the Upper Missis-
sippi Valley can not have failed to notice the enormous growth of
weeds in every waste spot where the original sward has been disturbed.
>
“-
>
.
Fig. 14.—Vield sparrow.
By the roadside, on the borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned
fields, wherever they can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring
up, and often form impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter
for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold
and the most terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed
patches on a sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20°
or more below zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the
busy little inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they
may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering,
and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one
28
of them be killed and examined, it will be found in excellent condi-
tion—in fact, a veritable ball of fat.
The snowbird (/unco hyematis) and tree sparrow (Spizella monticola)
are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows. The latter fairly
swarms all over the Northern States in winter, arriving from the north
early in October and leaving in April. Xxamination of many stomachs
shows that in winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of
weeds; and probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce
aday. In an article contributed to the New York Tribune in 1881 the
writer estimated the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these
birds in the State of Iowa. Upon the basis of one-fourth of an ounce
of seed eaten daily by each bird, and supposing that the birds averaged
ten to each square mile, and that they remain in their winter range
two hundred days, we shall have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875
tons, of weed seed consumed by this one species in a single season.
Large as these figures may seem, they certainly fall far short of the
reality. The estimate of ten birds to a square mile is much within the
truth, for the tree sparrow is certainly more abundant than this in
winter in Massachusetts, where the food supply is less than in the
Western States, and [ have known places in lowa where severa _ hou-
sand could be seen within the space of a few acres. This estimate,
moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of fact, there are at
least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually feed on these
seeds during winter.
Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-
throated sparrow, the white-crowned sparrow, the fox sparrow, the song
sparrow, the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the
country there are a vast number of these seed eaters at work during.
the colder months reducing next year’s crop of worse than useless
plants.
In treating of the value of birds, it has been customary to consider
them mainly as insect destroyers; but the foregoing illustration seems
to show that seed eaters have a useful function, which has never been
fully appreciated.
THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK.
(Zamelodia Indoviciana.)
The beautiful rose-breasted grosbeak (fig. 15) breeds in the northern
half of the United States cast of the Missouri River, but spends its
winters beyond our boundaries. Unfortunately it is not abundant in
New England, and nowhere as plentiful as it should be. It frequents
groves and orchards rather than gardens or dooryards, but probably
the beauty of the male is the greatest obstacle to its increase; the fully
adult bird is pure black an« white, with a broad patch of brilliant
rose color upon the breast and under each wing. On account of this
29
attractive plumage the birds are highly prized for ladies’ hats; and
consequently have been shot in season and out, till the wonder is not
that there are so few, but that any remain at all.
When the Colorado potato beetle first swept over the land, and nat-
uralists and farmers were anxious to discover whether or not there were
any enemies which would prey upon the pest, the grosbeak was almost
the only bird seen to eat the beetles. Further observation confirmed
the fact, and there can be no reasonable doubt that where the bird is
abundant it has contributed very much to the abatement of the pest
which has been noted during the last decade. But this is not the only
good which the bird does, for many other noxious insects besides the
potato beetle are also eaten.
The vegetable food of the grosbeak consists of buds and blossoms of
forest trees, and seeds, but the only damage of which it has been
ZZ) Lego)
LFS My
4 Lipp D> yy 2 Zi
PMN re -
oo? WY YGS LM
“4, Wye is 4h, Wp
CF Ma, *
Fic. 15.—Rose-breasted grosbeak.
accused is the stealing of green peas. The writer has observed it eat-
ing peas and has examined the stomachs of several that had been
killed in the very act. The stomachs contained a few peas and enough
potato beetles, old and young, as well as othe: harmful insects, to pay
for all the peas the birds would be likely to eat in a whole season.
The garden where this took place ad joined a small potato field which
earlier in the season had been so badly infested with the beetles that
the vines were completely riddled. The grosbeaks visited the field
every day, and finally brought their fledged young. The young birds
stood in a row on the topmost rail of the fence aud were fed with the
beetles which their parents gathered. When a careful inspection was
made a few days later, not a beetle, old or young, could be found; the
_ birds had swept them from the field and saved the potatoes.
30
It is not easy to advise measures either for increasing the numbers
of this bird or inducing it to take up its residence on the farm. Nat-
urally it inhabits thin, open woods or groves, and the change from such
places to orchards would be simple—in fact, has already been made in
some parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio. In New England the bird is
somewhat rare, and perhaps the best that can be done here or elsewhere
is to see that it is thoroughly protected.
THE SWALLOWS.
There are seven common species of swallows within the limits of the
United States, four of which have, to some extent, abandoned their
Vig, 16.—laru swallow.
primitive nesting habits and attached themselves to the abodes of
man. As a group, swallows are gregarious and social in an eminent
degree. Some species build nests in large colonies, occasionally num-
bering thousands; in the case of others only two or three pairs are
found together; while still others nest habitually in single pairs.
Their habits are too familiar to require any extended description.
Their industry and tirelessuess are wonderful, and during the day itis
rare to see swallows at rest except just before their departure for the
South, when they assemble upon telegraph wires or upon the roofs of
buildings, apparently making plans for the journey.
31
A noticeable characteristic of several of the species 1s their attachment
toman. In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow (Chelidon
erythrogastra) (fig. 16) now builds exclusively under roofs, having
entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested.
More recently the cliff swallow (Petrochelidon lunifrons) has found a
better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by
the overhanging cliffs of earth or stone which it once used, and to which
it still resorts occasionally in the East, and habitually in the unsettled
West. The martin (Progne subis) and white-bellied swallow (Tachy-
cineta bicolor) nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in aban-
doned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The other
species have not yet abandoned their primitive habitats, but possibly
may do so as the country becomes more thickly settled.
Field observation will convince any ordinarily attentive person that
the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in
mid-air, or perhaps in some cases picked from the tops of tall grass or
weeds. This observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs,
which shows that the food consists of many small species of beetles
which are much on the wing; many species of Diptera (mosquitoes and
their allies), with large quantities of flying ants and a few insects of
similar kinds. Most of them are either injurious or annoying, and the
numbers destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation, but
almost beyond imagination.
The white-bellied swallow eats a considerable number of berries of
the bayberry, or wax myrtle. During migrations and in winter it Las a
habit of roosting in these shrubs, and it probably obtains the fruit at
that time.
It is a mistake to tear down the nests of a colony of cliff swallows
from the eaves of a barn, for so far from disfiguring a building the
nests make a picturesque addition, and their presence should be
encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows
can be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise
suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used as mortar. Barn
swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable
of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful
for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in some higher situation.
THE CEDAR BIRD.
(Ampelis cedrorum.)
The cedar waxwing, or cherry bird (fig. 17), inhabits the whole of the
United States, but is much less common in the West. Although the
great bulk of the species retires southward in winter, the bird is occa-
sionally found in every State during the colder months, especially if
wild berries are abundant. Its proverbial fondness for cherries has
given rise to its popular name, and much complaint has been made on
account of the fruit eaten. Observation has shown, however, that its
32
depredations are confined to trees on which the fruit ripens earliest,
while later varieties are comparatively untouched. This is probably
owing to the fact that when wild fruits ripen they are preferred to cher-
ries, and really constitute the bulk of the cedar bird’s diet.
In 152 stomachs examined animal matter formed only 13 and vegeta.
ble 87 per cent, showing that the bird is not wholly a fruit eater. With
the exception of a few snails, all the animal food consisted of insects,
mainly beetles—and all but one more or less noxious, the famous elm
leaf-beetle being among the number. Bark or scale lice were found
in several stomachs, while the remainder of the animal food was made
up of grasshoppers, bugs, and the like. Three nestlings were found to
have been fed almost entirely ou insects.
Of the 87 per cent of vegetable food, 74 consisted entirely of wild
fruit or seeds and 13 of cultivated fruit, but a large part of the latter
YEN A A) ey
(/ZA\\ Sg | We, \ fy’
ZA Sera YIN) fl,
MY iy TI
ty ae ot a
AR
/
Via. 17.—Cedar bird.
was made up of blackberries and raspberries, and it is very doubtful
whether they represented cultivated varieties. Cherry stealing is the
chief complaint against this bird, but of the 152 stomachs only 9, all
taken in June and July, contained any remains of cultivated cherries,
and these aggregate but 5 per cent of the year’s food. As 41 stomachs
were collected in those months, it is evident that the birds do not live
to any great extent on cultivated cherries.
Although the cherry bird is not a great insect destroyer, it does some
good work in this way, since it probably rears its young mostly upod
insect food. On the other hand, it does not devour nearly as much
cultivated fruit as has been asserted, and most, if not all, of the damage
can be prevented. ‘The bird should therefore be considered a useful
species, and as such should be accorded all possible protection.
338
THE CATBIRD.
(Galeoscoptes carolinensis. )
The catbird (fig. 18), like the thrasher, is a lover of swamps, and
delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriers,
and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food
in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the
Rocky Mountains; occurs also in Washington, Idaho, and Utah, and
extends northward into British America. It winters in the Southern
States, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America.
The catbird always attracts attention, and the intruder upon its
haunts soon understands that he is not welcome. Thereis no mistaking
the meaning of the sneering voice with which he is saluted, and there
is little doubt that this gave rise to the popular prejudice against the
i
SAN
q
zs
J
Fic. 18.—Catbird.
bird; but the feeling has been increased by the fact that the species
is sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. All such reports,
however, seem to come from the prairie country of the West. In New
England, according to the writer’s experience the catbird is seldom
seen about gardens or orchards; the reason may possibly be found in
the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs which afford so large
a part of this bird’s food are conspicuously absent. With the settle-
ment of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards, vineyards,
and small fruit gardens, which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the
catbird, as well as for other species, with a consequent large increase
in their numbers, but without providing the native fruits upon which
they have been accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances, what
is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits for their
15620—No. 54——3
34
supplies?) The remedy is obvious; cultivated fruits can be protected
by the simple expedient of planting wild species or others which are
preferred by the birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity
showed that the Russian mulberry was preferred to any cultivated fruit
that could be offered.
The stomachs of 213 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44
per cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food.! Ants,
beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the
animal food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects
and spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated
fruits, or those which may be cultivated, such as strawberries, raspber-
ries, and blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole of
this, it is probable—and in the eastern and well-wooded part of the
country almost certain—that a large part was obtained from wild vines.
The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, such as cherries,
dogwood, sour gum, elder berries, greenbrier, spice berries, black alder,
sumac, and poison ivy.
Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying
small fruit, the bird can not be considered injurious. On the contrary,
in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm, and the
evil it does can be reduced appreciably by the methods already pointed
out.
THE BROWN THRASHER.
(Harporhynchus rufus.)
The brown thrasher (fig. 19) breeds throughout the United States east
of the Great Plains, and winters in the south Atlantic and Gulf States.
It occasionally visits the garden or orchard, but nests in swamps or in
groves standing upon low ground. While it generally prefers a thickly
grown retreat, it sometimes builds in a pile of brush at a distance from
trees. On account of its more retiring habits it is not so conspicuous
as the robin, although it may be equally abundant. Few birds can
excel the thrasher in sweetness of song, but it is so shy that its notes
are not heard often enough to be appreciated. Its favorite time for sing-
ing is the early morning, when, perched on the top of some tall bush or
low tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would, do credit to
a mockingbird. Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abun-
dant, the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker,
The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects.
Aun examination of 121 stomachs showed 36 per cent of vegetable and
64 of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring
before fruit is ripe. Half the insects were beetles, and the remainder
chietly grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predaceous
‘The investigation of the food of the catbird, brown thrasher, and house wren was
made by Mr. Sylvester D. Judd and published in the Yearbook of the Department
of Agriculture for 1895, pp. 405-408.
35
beetles were eaten, but, on the whole, its work as an insect destroyer
may be considered beneficial.
Eight per cent of the food is made up of fruits like raspberries and
currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least
are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made
up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle,
amounting to only 3 per cent, and though some of the corn may be
taken from newly planted fields it is amply paid for by the May beetles
which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists of
wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful
bird, and probably does just as good work in its secluded retreats as
Uy
i
Sy
Fic. 19.—Brown thrasher.
it would about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt
the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack
the farmers’ crops.
THE HOUSE WREN.
(Troglodytes aédon.)
The diminutive house wren (fig. 20) frequents barns and gardens, and
particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He
makes his nest in a hollow branch where perhaps a woodpecker had a
domicile the year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he
happens to fancy one of the boxes that have been put up for the bluebirds
he does not hesitate to take it. He is usually received with favor, and
is not slow to avail himself of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars
placed for his accommodation.
As regards food habits, the house wren is entirely beneficial, Practi-
cally, he can be said to live upon animal food alone, for an examination
36
of 52 stomachs showed that 98 per cent of the stomach contents was
made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 per cent was vege-
table, including bits of grass and similar matter, evidently taken by
accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of grasshoppers
and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the
house wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing from twelve to six-
teen young in a season, a family of these birds must cause considerabie
reduction in the number of insects in a garden, Wrens are industrious
foragers, searching every tree, shrub, or vine for caterpillars, exam-
ining every post and rail of the fence, and every cranny in the wall for
insects or spiders. They do not, as a rule, fly far afield, but work
DK SS
7 4 -
4 Sy NS
Y) Z We Ze
Fig. 20.—House wren.
industriously in the immediate vicinity of their nests. In this way
they become valuable aids in the garden or orchard, and by providing
suitable nesting boxes they may be induced to take up residence where
their services will do most good. Their eccentricities in the selection
of a home are well known. Almost anything, from an old cigar box to
a tomato can, an old teapot, a worn-out boot, or a horse’s skull, is
acceptable, provided it be placed well up from the ground and out of
reach of cats and other prowlers.
It does not seem possible to have too many wrens, and every effort
should be made to protect them and to encourage their nesting about
the house.
37
THE ROBIN.
(Merula migratoria.)
The robin (fig. 21) is found throughout the United States east of the
Great Plains, and is represented farther west by a slightly different
subspecies. It extends far north through Canada, and is found even
in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern
States in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where
wild berries furnish an abundant supply of food.
The robin builds its nest in orchards aud gardens, and occasionally
takes advantage of a nook about the house, or under the shelter of the
roof of a shed or outbuilding. Its food habits have sometimes caused
apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other
small fruits, particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many
complaints have been lodged against it, and some persons have gone
Fic. 21.—Robin.
so far as to condemn the bird. The robin is, however, too valuable to
be exterminated, and choice fruit can be readily protected from its
depredations.
An examination of 330 stomachs shows that over 42 per cent of its food
is animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up
largely of small fruits or berries. Over 19 per cent consists of beetles,
about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in
spring and fall, when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers make up
about one-tenth of the whole food, but in August comprise over 30 per
cent. Caterpillars form about 6 per cent, while the rest of the animal
food, about 7 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders,
snails, and angle-worms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs,
with a large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say
that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin’s food.
38
Vegetable food forms nearly 58 per cent of the stomach conteuts, over
47 being wild fruits, and only a little more than 4 per cent being possibly
cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent
was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in August,
Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten in every month, and constitutes a
staple food during half the year. No less than forty-one species were
identified in the stomachs; of these, the most important were four spe-
cies of dogwood, three of wild cherries, three of wild grapes, four of
greenbrier, two of holly, two of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries,
blueberries, barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons,
with four species of sumac, and various other seeds not strictly fruit.
The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and
earlier fruits, and few, if any, complaints have been made against it
on the score of eating apples, peaches, pears, grapes, or even late
cherries. By the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are
teeming with wild fruits, which the bird evidently finds more to its
taste. The cherry, unfortunately, ripens so early that it is almost the
only fruit accessible at a time when the bird’s appetite has been sharp-
ened by a long-continued diet of insects, earthworms, and dried berries,
and it is no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily
eaten. In view of the fact that the robin takes ten times as much wild
as cultivated fruit, it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so
little. Nor is this necessary, for by a little care both may be preserved.
Where much fruit is grown, it is no great loss to give up one tree to the
birds; and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows.
Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines
judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the
birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse
bearer, ripening at the same time as the cherry, and, so far as observa-
tion has gone, most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It is
believed that a number of these trees planted around the garden or
orchard would fully protect the more valuable fruits.
Many persons have written about the delicate discrimination of birds
for choice fruit, asserting that only the finest and costliest varieties are
selected. This is contrary to all careful scientific observation. Birds,
unlike human beings, seem to prefer fruit like the mulberry, that is
sweetly insipid, or that has some astringent or bitter quality like the
chokecherry or bolly. The so-called black alder (Llex verticillata),
which is a species of holly, has bright scarlet berries, as bitter as
quinine, that ripen Jate in October, and remain on the bushes through
November, and though frost grapes, the fruit of the Virginia creeper,
and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time, the
birds eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent, as shown by
the seeds found in the stomachs. It is moreover a remarkable fact
that the wild fruits upon which the birds feed largely are those which
man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation.
39
THE BLUEBIRD.
(Sialia sialis.)
The common and familiar bluebird (fig. 22) is an inhabitant of all the
States east of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico north
ward into Canada. It winters as far north as southern Illinois, in the
Mississippi Valley, and Pennsylvania in the east; in spring it is one
of the first migrants to arrive in the Northern States, and is always
welcomed as an indication of the final breaking up of winter. It fre-
quents orchards and gardens, where it builds its nest in hollow trees,
or takes advantage of a nesting box provided by the enterprising
farmer’s boy.
So far as known, this bird has not been accused of stealing fruit or
of preying upon any crops. An examination of 205 stomachs showed
ps
Fra. 22.—Bluebird.
that 76 per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while
the other 24 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found
mostly in stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 28 per cent of
the whole food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects,
including quite a number of spiders, comprise the remainder of the
insect diet. All these are more or less harmful, except a few preda-
ceous beetles, which amount to 8 per cent, but in view of the large
consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we can at least condone
this offense, if such it may be called. The destruction of grasshoppers
is very noticeable in the months of August and September, when these
insects form more than 60 per cent of the diet.
It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed
more by abundance than by choice. Predaceous beetles are eaten in
40
spring, as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early sum-
mer caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and are replaced a
little later by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when
grasshoppers are more easily obtained.
So far as its vegetable food is concerned, the bluebird is positively
harmless. The only trace of avy useful product in the stomachs con-
sisted of a few blackberry seeds, and even these more probably belonged
to wild than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various
seeds which were found: Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, poke,
berry, partridgeberry, greenbriar, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly-
strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several
species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list
shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to sup-
ply its needs, and indicates that by encouraging the growth of some of
these plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird can be
induced to make its home on the premises.
Bluebirds are so well known that it seems unnecessary to urge any-
thing more in their favor; but in view of the fact that large numbers
were destroyed during the severe storm of 1895, more than ordinary
vigilance should be exercised in protecting them until they have
regained their normal abundance.
°
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF*AGRICULTURE.
FARMERS’ BULLETIN No. 54.
SOME COMMON BIRDS
IN THEIR KELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
BY
F. E. L. BEAL, B. S.,
ASSISTANT ORNILTHOLOGISTL, BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.
[May, 1897.]
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1898.
CONTENTS.
Introductionicc..ccocecicecuecxeuesse Ssddue se csecee eek ees eeetmeeoets cece
The cuckoos (Coccyzus americanus and C. erythrophthalmus) (fig. 1) -.----------
The woodpeckers.( figs: 255). 2acj.22 cee ccyesarccreiercpeseiciereicniieeseneeedoalseeciectine
The kingbird (Tyrannus tyrannus) (fig.6)..-.-.------ ---2-- e222 eee eee eee eee
The phebe (Sayornis phabe) (fig. 7)..---.------ 2-2-2 eee eee eee eee ee eee ee eee
The bluejay (Cyanocitta cristata) (fig.8)...-..-.--2--. 22-22 eee eee eee eee eee
The crow (Corvus americanus) .......- 0-20 2202 eee eee cee cee ee eee eee
The bobolink, or ricebird (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) (fig. 9)...----------+---+- +--+
The red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phaniceus) (fig. 10)...-.--.--2---2--------
The meadow lark, or old field Jark (Sturnella magna) (fig. 11).--...----.------
The Baltimore oriole (Jeterus galbula) (fig. 12).....----.-+----------- e222 eee
The crow blackbird, or grackle (Quiscalus quiscula) (fig. 18) ....-------.------
The Sparrows: CG 14). is ccs ccek ce ctces Seas peetacre, estonia Stare citar toaleaewidcia eee
The rose-breasted grosbeak (Zamelodia ludoviciana) (fig. 15)...-.------ +25 ----
The swallows (fig. 16) veces ses gee eee ccscacic ices doce secedindsiieenseaegeecas
The cedarbird (Ampelis cedrorum) (fig.17).-----. 2-22-2202 eee cee e cere eeeeeee
The catbird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis) (fig. 18) .-.......-..----22 2222222 eee eee
The brown thrasher (Harporhynchus rufus) (fig. 19). -... 2... 2220220220 eee eee
The house wren (Troglodytes aédon) (fig. 20)... 022. ..00 00222 e eee ee eee eee
The robin (Merula migratoria) (fig. 21)
The bluebird (Sialia sialis) (fig. 22)
2
SOME COMMON BIRDS IN THEIR RELATION
TO AGRICULTURE.
INTRODUCTION.
It has long been known that birds play an important part in relation
to agriculture, but there seems to be a tendency to dwell on the harm
they do rather than on the good. Whether a bird is injurious or bene-
ficial depends almost entirely upon what it eats, and in the case of
species which are unusually abundant or which depend in part upon the
farmer’s crops for subsistence the character of the food often becomes a
very practical question. If crows or blackbirds are seen in numbers
about cornfields, or if woodpeckers are noticed at work in an orchard, it
is perhaps not surprising that they are accused of doing harm. Careful
investigation, however, often shows that they are actually destroying
noxious insects, and also that even those which do harm at one season
may compensate for it by eating noxious species at another. Insects
are eaten at all times by the majority of land birds, and during the
breeding season most kinds subsist largely and rear their young exclu-
sively on this food. When insects are unusuaily plentiful, they are
eaten by many birds which ordinarily do not touch them. Even birds
of prey resort to this diet, and when insects are more easily obtained
than other fare, the smaller hawks and owls live on them almost entirely.
This was well illustrated during the recent plague of Rocky Mountain
locusts in the Western States, when it was found that locusts were
eaten by nearly every bird in the region, and that they formed almost
the entire food of a large majority of the species.
Within certain limits, birds feed upon the kind of food that is most
accessible. Thus, as a rule, insectivorous birds eat the insects that are
most easily obtained, provided they do not have some peculiarly dis-
agreeable property. It is not probable that a bird habitually passes by
oue kind of insect to look for another which is more appetizing, and
there seems little evidence in support of the theory that the selection
of food is restricted to any particular species of insect, for it is evi-
dent that a bird eats those which by its own method of seeking are
most easily obtained. Thus, a ground-feeding bird eats those it finds
among the dead leaves and grass; a flycatcher, watching for its prey
from some vantage point, captures entirely different kinds; and the
3
4
voodpecker and warbler, in the tree tops, select still others. It is thus
apparent that a bird’s diet is likely to be quite varied, and to differ at
different seasons of the year.
In investigating the food habits of birds, field observation can be
relied on only to a limited extent, for it is not always easy to determine
what a bird really eats by watching it. In order to be positive on this
point, it is necessary to examine the stomach contents. When birds are
suspected of doing injury to field crops or fruit trees, a few individuals
should be shot and their stomachs examined. This will show unmis-
takably whether or not the birds are guilty.
In response to a general demand for definite information regarding
the food habits of our native birds, the Biological Survey of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture has for some years past been conducting a system-
atic investigation of the food of species which are believed to be of
economic importance. Thousands of birds’ stomachs have been care-
fully examined in the laboratory, and all the available data respect-
ing the food brought together. The results of the investigations
relating to birds of prey, based on an examination of nearly 3,000
stomachs, were published in 1893, in a special bulletin entitled The
Hawks and Owls of the United States. Many other species have been
similarly studied and the results published, either in special bulletins
or as articles in the yearbooks. The present bulletin contains brief
abstracts of the results of tood studies of about 30 grain and insect
eating birds belonging to 10 different families.!
These species comprise among others the crow blackbirds and rice-
birds, against which serious complaints have been made on account of
the damage they do to corn, wheat, rice, and other crops; and also the
cuckoos, grosbeaks, and thrashers, which are generally admitted to be
beneficial, but whose true value as insect destroyers has not been fully
appreciated. The practical value of birds in controlling insect pests
should be more generally recognized. It may be an easy matter to
exterminate the birds in an orchard or grain field, but it is an extremely
difficult one to control the insect pests. It is certain, too, that the
value of our native sparrows as weed destroyers is not appreciated.
Weed seed forms an importantitem of the winter food of many of these
birds, and it is impossible to estimate the iumense numbers of voxious
*veeds which are thus annually destroyed.
'The limits of this bulletin preclnde giving more than a very brief statement
regarding the food of each bird, but more detailed accounts of some of the species
will be found in the following reports of the Biological Survey (formerly Division
of Ornithology and Mammalogy): The Cuckoos—Bulletin No. 9, 1898, pp. 1-14;
Crow—Bullotin No. 6, 1895, pp. 1-98; Woodpeckers—Bulletin No. 7, 1895, pp. 1-39;
Kinghird—Annual Report Secrotary of Agriculture for 1893, pp. 233-234 ; Redwingel
Blackhird—Yearhook for 1897, pp. 349-351; Baltimore Oriole—Yearbook for 1895, PP.
126-420; Grackles—Yearbook for 1804, pp. 233-248; Moadowlark—Yearbook for 1895,
pp. 420-426; Cedarbird—Annual Report Socretary of Agriculture for 1892, pp. 197-
200; Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and Wren—Yearbook for 1895, pp. 405-418.
5
If birds are protected and encouraged to nest about the farm and gar-
den, they will do their share in destroying noxious insects and weeds,
and a few hours spent in putting up boxes for bluebirds, martins, and
wrens will prove a good investment. Birds are protected by law in
many States, but it remains for the agriculturists to see that the laws
are faithfully observed.
THE CUCKOOS.
(Coccyzus americanus and C. erythrophthalmus.)
Two species of cuckoos, the yellow-billed (fig. 1) and the black-billed,
are common in the United States cast of the Plains, and a subspecies
of the yellow-billed extends westward to the Pacific. While the two
species are quite distinct, they do not differ greatly in food habits, and
their economic status is practically the same.
Wi
* hho fy
Fia. 1.—Yellow-billed cuckoo.
An examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these cuckoos are
much given to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject
those covered with hair. In fact, euckoos eat so many hairy cater-
pillars that the hairs pierce the inner lining of the stomach and remain
there, so that when the stomach is opened and turned inside out, it
appears to be lined with a thin coating of fur.
An examination of the stomachs of 46 black-billed cuckoos, taken
during the summer months, showed the remains of 906 caterpillars, 44
beetles, 96 grasshoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stink bugs, and 15 spiders. In
all probability more individuals than these were represented, but their
remains were too badly broken for recognition. Most of the cater-
pillars were hairy, and many of them belonged to a genus that lives in
colonies and feeds on the leaves of trees, including the apple tree.
One stomach was filled with larva of a caterpillar belonging to the
6
same genus as the tent caterpillar, while others contained that species,
Other larve were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to
have a special fondness. The beetles were mainly click beetles and
weevils, with a few May beetles. The sawflies were all found in two
stomachs, one of which contained no less than 100 in the larval
Stage.
Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to
October, inclusive) were examined. The contents consisted of 1,865
caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 grasshoppers, 37 sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies,
and 86 spiders. Most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and
many of them were of large size. One stomach contained 250 Ameri-
can tent caterpillars; another 217 fall webworms. In places where tent
caterpillars are abundant they seem to constitute a large portion of the
food of these two birds. The beetles were distributed among several
families, but all more or less harmful to agriculture. In the same
stomach which contained the tent caterpillars were two Colorado potato
beetles; in another were three goldsmith beetles and remains of several
other large beetles. Besides grasshoppers were several katydids and
tree crickets. The sawflies were in the larval stage, in which they
resemble caterpillars so closely that they are commonly called false
caterpillars, and perhaps this likeness may be the reason the cuckoos
eat them so freely. The bugs consisted of stink bugs and cicadas or
dog-day harvest flies, with the single exception of one wheel bug, which
was the only useful insect eaten, unless the spiders be counted as such.
THE WOODPECKERS.
Five or six species of woodpeckers are familiarly known throughout
the eastern United States, and in the west are replaced by others of
similar habits. Several species remain in the northern States through
the entire year, while others are more or less migratory.
Farmers are prone to look upon wookpeckers with suspicion. When
the birds are seen scrambling over fruit trees and pecking at the bark,
and fresh holes are found in the tree, it is concluded that they are
doing harm. Careful observers, however, have noticed that, excepting
a single species, these birds rarely leave any important mark on 4
healthy tree, but that when a tree is affected by wood-boring larv®
the insects are accurately located, dislodged, and devoured. In case
the holes from which the borers are taken are afterwards occupied by
colonies of ants, these ants in turn are drawn out and eaten.
Two of the best known woodpeckers, the hairy woodpecker (Dry
bates villosus) (fig. 2) and the downy woodpecker (D. pubescens), includ-
ing their races, range uver the greater part of the United States, and
for the most part remain throughout the year in their usual haunts.
They differ chiefly in size, for their colors are practically the same, and
the males, like other woodpeckers, are distinguished ly a scarlet patch
on the head.
7
An examination of many stomachs of these two birds shows that
from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists of insects, chiefly
noxious. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larve, are conspicu-
ous, and with them are associated many caterpillars, mostly species
that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants that live in
decaying wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and eaten in
great quantities. Many auts are particularly harmful to timber, for if
they find a small spot of decay in the vacant burrow of some wovd-
borer, they enlarge the hole, and as their colony is always on the
increase, continue to eat away the wood until the whole trunk is houvey-
Fic. 2.—Hairy woodpecker.
combed. Moreover, these insects are not accessible to other birds, and
could pursue their career of destruction unmolested were it not that
the woodpeckers, with beaks and tongues especially fitted for such
work, dig out and devour them. It is thus evident that woodpeckers
are great conservators of forests. To them, more than to any other
agency, we owe the preservation of timber from hordes of destructive
insects.
One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or
golden-winged woodpecker (Colaptes auratus) (fig. 3), which is generally
distributed throughout the United States from the Atlantic Coast to
8
the Rocky Mountains. It is there replaced by the red-shafted flicker
(C. cafer), which extends westward to the Pacific. The two species are
as nearly identical in food habits as their enviroument will allow. The
flickers, while genuine woodpeckers, differ somewhat in habits from the
rest of the family, and are frequently seen upon the ground searching
for food. Like the downy and hairy woodpeckers, they eat wood-boring
grubs and ants, but the number of ants eaten is much greater. Two of
the flickers’ stomachs examined were completely filled with ants, each
stomach containing more than 3,000 individuals. These ants belonged
to species which live in the ground, and it is these insects for which the
flicker is searching when running about in the grass, although some
grasshoppers are also taken.
Pia, 8,—Viicker.
Thered-headed woodpecker (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) (fig. 4) is well
known east of the Rocky Mountains, but israther rare in New England.
Unlike some of the other species, it prefers fence posts and telegraph
poles to trees asa foraging ground. Its food therefore naturally dif-
fers from that of the preceding species, and consists largely of adult
beetles and wasps, which it frequently captures on the wing, after the
fashion of flycatchers. Grasshoppers also form an important part of
the food. The redhead has a peculiar habit of selecting very large
beetles, as shown by the presence of fragments of several of the largest
species in the stomachs. Among the beetles were quite a number of
predaccous ground beetles, and unfortunately some tiger beetles, which
are useful insects. Theredhead has been accused of robbing the nests
9
of other birds; also of attacking young birds and poultry and pecking
out their brains, but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substan-
tiate this charge it is probable that the habit is rather exceptional.
It has been customary to speak of the smaller woodpeckers as “sap-
suckers,” under the belief that they drill holes in the bark of trees for
the purpose of drinking the sap and eating the inner bark. Close obser-
vation, however, has fixed this habit upon only one species, the yellow-
bellied woodpecker, or sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) (fig 5). This bird
has been shown to be guilty of pecking holes in the bark of various forest.
trees, and sometimes in that of apple trees, from which it drinks the sap
= CL
SS.
é SS ~~
SS
WS
WS
S SS
SSSc*
= Sy
Fic, 4.—Red-headed woodpecker.
when the pits become filled. It has been proved, however, that besides
taking the sap the bird captures large numbers of insects which are
attracted by the sweet fluid, and that these form a very considerable
portion of its diet. In some cases the trees are injured by being thus
punctured, and die in a year or two, but since comparatively few are
touched the damage is not great. It is equally probable, moreover, that
the bird fully compensates for this injury by the insects it consumes.
The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of
small fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such
fruits as dogwood, Virginia creeper, and others, with the seeds of
10
poison ivy, sumac, and a few other shrubs. The flicker also eats a great
many small fruits and the seeds of a cunsiderable number of shrubs
and weeds. None of the three species is much given to eating culti-
vated fruits or crops.
The redhead has been accused of eating the larger kinds of fruit,
such as apples, and also of taking considerable corn. The stomach
examinations show that to some extent these charges are substantiated,
but that the habit is not prevalent enough to cause much damage. It
is quite fond of mast, especially beechnuts, and when these nuts are
Fig. 5.—Yellow-bellicd woodpecker.
plentiful the birds remain north all winter, instead of migrating a8 is
their usual custom.
Half the food of the sapsucker, aside from sap, consists of vegetable
matter, largely berries of the kinds already mentioned, and also a quan:
tity of the inner bark of trees, more of which is eaten by this species
than by any other. .
Many other woodpeckers are found in America, but their food habits
agree in the main with those just described. These birds are certainly
11
the only agents which can successfully cope with certain insect enemies
of the forests, aud, to some extent, of fruit tree salso. For this reason,
if for no other, they should be protected in every possible way.
THE KINGBIRD.
(Tyrannus tyrannus.)
The kingbird (fig. 6) is essentially a lover of the orchard, and wher-
ever the native groves have been replaced by fruit trees this pugna-
cious bird takes up its abode. It breeds in all of the States east of
the Rocky Mountains, and less commonly in the Great Basin and on
the Pacific Coast. It migrates south early in the fall, and generally
leaves the United States to spend the winter in more southern latitudes.
gee
s fi Wi “7;
SS SIGE iD Ao
Wid ae
Fia. 6.—Kingbird.
The kingbird inanifests its presence in many ways. It is somewhat
boisterous and obtrusive, and its antipathy for hawks and crows is well
known. It never hesitates to give battle to any of these marauders,
no matter how superior in size, and for this reason a family of king-
birds is a desirable adjunct to a poultry yard. On one occasion 1n
the knowledge of the writer a hawk which attacked a brood of young
turkeys was pounced upon and so severely buffeted by a pair of zing-
birds, whose nest was near by, that the would-be robber was glad to
escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbird are
similarly protected.
In its food habits this species is largely insectivorous. Itis a true fly-
catcher by nature, and takes a large part of its food on the wing. It
12
does not, however, confine itself to this method of hunting, but picks
up some insects from trees and weeds, and even descends to the ground
in search of myriapods or thousand legs. The chief complaint against
the kingbird is that it preys largely upon honeybees; and this charge
has been made both by professional bee keepers and others. Many
observers have seen the bird at work near hives, and there is no
reason to doubt the honesty of their testimony. One bee raiser in
Iowa, suspecting the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number
near his hives, but when the birdy stomachs were examined by an
expert entomologist not a trace of honeybees could be found.
The Biological Survey has made an examination of 281 stomachs col-
lected in various parts of the country, but found only 14 containing
remains of honeybees. In these 14 stomachs there were in ali 50 honey-
bees, of which 40 were drones, 4 were certainly workers, and the
remaining 6 were too badly broken to be identified as to sex.
The insects that constitute the great bulk of the food of this bird are
noxious species, largely beetles—May beetles, click beetles (the larve
of which are known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit and
grain, and ahost of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous
elements of the food, far outnumbering the hive bees. During summer
many grasshoppers and crickets, as well as leaf hoppers and other bugs,
are also eaten. Among the flies were a number of robber flies—insects
which prey largely upon other insects, especially honeybees, and which
have been known to commit in this way extensive depredations. Itis
thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these flies actually does
good work for the apiarist. Nineteen robber flies were found in the
stomachs examined; these may be considered more than an equiva-
lent for the four worker honeybees already mentioned. A few caterpil-
lars are eaten, mostly belonging to the group commonly knowa as
cutworms, all the species of which are harmful. About 10 per cent
of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising some twenty
common species of the roadsides and thickets, such as dogwood berries,
elder berries, and wild grapes. The bird has not been reported as
eating cultivated fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if
this is ever the case, for cherries and blackberries are the only ones that
might have come from cultivated places, and they were found in but
few stomachs.
Three points seem to be clearly established in regard to the food ot
the kingbird—(1) that about 90 per cent consists of insects, mostly
injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees
is much less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not
result in any great damage; and (3) that the vegetable food consists
almost entirely of wild fruits which have no economic value. These
facts, taken in connection with its well-known enmity for hawks and
crows, entitle the kingbird to a place among the most desirable birds
of the orchard or garden.
13
THE PHBE.
(Sayornis phabe.)
Among the early spring arrivals at the North, none are more welcome
than the phoebe (fig. 7). Though naturally building its nest under an
overhanging cliff of rock or earth, or in the mouth of a cave, its prefer-
ence for the vicinity of farm buildings is so marked that in the more
thickly settled parts of the country the bird is seldom seen at any great
distance from a farmhouse except where a bridge spans some stream,
atfording a secure spot for a nest. Its confiding disposition has ren-
dered it a great favorite, and consequently it is seldom disturbed. It
breeds throughout the United States east of the Great Plains, and
winters from the South Atlantic and Gulf States southward.
Fia. 7.—Phebe.
The pheebe subsists almost exclusively upon insects, most of which
are caught upon the wing. An examination of 80 stomachs showed
that over 93 per cent of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders,
while wild fruit constitutes the remainder. The insects belong chiefly
to noxious species, and include many click beetles, May beetles, and
weevils. Grasshoppers in their season are eaten to a considerable
extent, while wasps of various species, many flies of species that annoy
cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also eaten regularly. Itis evident
that + pair of phoebes must materially reduce the number of insects
hea, a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always, raise two broods
. @ year, and each brood numbers from four to six young.
.. The vegetable portion of the food is unimportant, and consists mainly
of ? ew seeds, with small fruits, such as wild cherries, elder berries, and
14
juniper berries. The raspberries and blackberries found in the stom-
achs were the only fruits that might have belonged to cultivated varie.
ties, and the quantity was trifling.
There is hardly a more useful species than the phoebe about the farm,
and it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes
is unnecessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed,
or a nook under the eaves, but it should be protected from cats and
other marauders.
THE BLUE JAY.
(Cyanocitta cristata. )
The blue jay (fig. 8) is a common bird of the United States east of the
Great Plains, and remains throughout the year in most of its range,
although its numbers are somewhat reduced in winter in the Northern
States. During spring and summer the jay is forced to become an
Ye “GE WY DIPS.
© Wy, Z Ye Yi) Bey); 8 \ fy Me Pa ai
Ri ’
Fig. 8.—Blue jay.
industrious hunter for insects, and is not so conspicuous a feature of
the landscape as when it roams the country at will after the cares of
the nesting season are over.
Ornithologists and field observers in general declare that a consider-
able portion of its food in spring and early summer consists of the eggs
and young of small birds, and some farmers accuse it of stealing corn
to an injurious extent in the fall. While there may be some truth in
these accusations, they have almost certainly been exaggerated. No
doubt many jays have been observed robbing nests of other birds, but
thousands have been seen that were not so engaged.
In an investigation of the food of the blue jay 292 stomachs were
examined, which showed that animal matter comprised 24 per cent and
vegetable matter 76 per cent of the bird’s diet. So much has been said
about the nest-robbing habits of the jay that special search was made for
traces of birds or birds’ eggs in the stomachs, with the result that shells
15
of small birds’ eggs were found in three and the remains of young
birds in only two stomachs. Such negative evidence is not sufficient
to controvert the great mass of testimony upon this point, but it shows
that the habit is not so prevalent as has been believed. Besides birds
and their eggs, the jay eats mice, fish, salamanders, snails, and crusta-
ceans, which altogether constitute but little more than 1 per cent of its
diet. The insect food is made up of beetles, grasshoppers, caterpillars,
and a few species of other orders, all noxious, except some 3} per
cent of predaceous beetles. Thus something more than 19 per cent
of the whole food consists of harmful insects. In August the jay, like
many other birds, turns its attention to grasshoppers, which constitute
nearly one-fifth of its food during that month. At this time, also,
most of the other noxious insects, including caterpillars, are consumed,
though beetles are eaten chiefly in spring.
The vegetable food is quite varied, but the item of most interest is
grain. Corn was found in 70 stomachs, wheat in 8, and oats in 2—all
constituting 19 per cent of the total food. Corn is evidently the favorite
grain, but a closer inspection of the record shows that the greater part
was eaten during the first five months of the year, and that very little
was taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abundant.
This indicates that most of the corn is gleaned from the fields after
harvest, except what is stolen from cribs or gathered in May at planting
time.
The jay’s favorite food is mast (i. e., acorns, chestnuts, chinquapins,
etc.), which was found in 158 of the 292 stomachs and amounted to
more than 42 per cent of the whole food. In September corn formed
15 and mast 35 per cent, while in October, November, and December
corn dropped to an almost inappreciable quantity and mast amounted
to 64, 82, and 83 per cent, respectively. And yet in these months corn
is abundant and everywhere easily accessible. The other elements of
food consist of a few seeds and wild fruits, among which grapes and
blackberries predominate.
The results of the stomach examination show, (1) that the jay eats
many noxious insects; (2) that its habit of robbing the nests of other
birds is much less common than has been asserted; and (3) that it does
little harm to agriculture, since all but a small amount of the corn eaten
is waste grain.
THE CROW.
(Corvus americanus.)
There are few birds so well known as the common crow, and unlike
‘most other species he does not seem to decrease in numbers as the
country becomes more densely populated. The crow is commonly
»regarded as a blackleg and a thief. Without the dash and brilliaucy
:of the jay, or the bold savagery of the hawk, he is accused of doing
‘More mischief than either. That he does pull up sprouting corn, de-
‘Stroy chickens, and rob the nests of small birds has teen repeatedly
16
proved. Nor are these all of his sins. He is known to eat frogs, toads,
salamanders, and some small snakes, all harmless creatures that do
some good by eating insects. With so many charges against him, it
may be well to show why he should not be utterly condemned.
The examination of a large number of stomachs, while confirming all
the foregoing accusations, has thrown upon the subject a light some-
what different from that derived solely from field observation. It shows
that the bird’s-nesting habit, as in the case of the jay, is not so univer.
sal as has been supposed; and that, so far from being a habitual nest
robber, the crow only occasionally indulges in that reprehensible prac-
tice. The same is true in regard to destroying chickens, for he is able
to carry off none but very young ones, and his opportunities for cap-
turing them are somewhat limited. Neither are many toads and frogs
eaten, and as frogs are of no great practical value, their destruction is
not a serious matter; but toads are very useful, and their consumption,
so far as it goes, must be counted against the crow. Turtles, crayfishes,
and snails, of which he eats quite a large number, may be considered
neutral, while mice may be counted to his credit.
In his insect food, however, the crow makes amends for sins in the
rest of his dietary, although even here the first item is against him.
Predaceous beetles are eaten in some numbers throughout the season,
but the number is not great. May beetles, “ dor-bugs,” or June bugs,
and others of the same family, constitute the principal food during
spring and early summer, and are fed to the young in immense quanti-
ties. Other beetles, nearly all of a noxious character, are eaten toa
considerable extent. Grasshoppers are first taken in May, but not in
large numbers until August, when, as might be expected, they form the
leading article of diet, showing that the crow is no exception to the
general rule that most birds subsist, to a large extent, upon grasshop-
pers in the month of August. Many bugs, some caterpillars, mostly
cutworms, and some spiders are also eaten—all of them either harmfal
or neutral in their economic relations. Of the insect diet Mr. B. A.
Schwarz says: “The facts, on the whole, speak overwhelmingly in favor
of the crow.”
Probably the most important item in the vegetable food is corn, and
by pulling up the newly sprouted seeds the bird renders himself
extremely obnoxious. Observation and experiments with tame crows
show that hard, dry corn is never eaten if anything else is to be had,
and if fed to nestlings it is soon disgorged. The reason crows resort
to newly planted fields is that the kernels of corn are softened by the
moisture of the earth, and probably become more palatable in the pro
ess of germination, which changes the starch of the grain to sugar.
The fact, however, remains that crows eat corn extensively only when
it has been softened by germination or partial decay, or before it is ripe
and still “in the milk.” Experience has shown that they may be pre
vented from pulling up young corn by tarring the seed, which not only
saves the corn but forces them to turn their attention to insects.
17
they persist in eating green corn it is not so easy to prevent the damage;
but no details of extensive injury in this way have yet been presented,
and it is probable that no great harm has been done.
Crows eat fruit to some extent, but confine themselves for the most
part to wild species, such as dogwood, sour gum, and seeds of the
different kinds of sumac. They have also a habit of sampling almost
everything which appears eatable, especially when food is scarce. For
example, they eat frozen apples found on the trees in winter, or pump-
kins, turnips, and potatoes which have been overlooked or neglected;
even mushrooms are sometimes taken, probably in default of something
better. :
In estimating the economic status of the crow, it must be acknowl.
edged that he does some damage, but, on the other hand, he should
receive much ¢redit for the insects which he destroys. In the more
thickly settled parts of the country the crow probably does more good
than harm, at least when ordinary precautions are taken to protect
young poultry and newly-planted corn against his depredations. It,
however, corn is planted with no provision against possible marauders,
if hens and turkeys are allowed to nest and to roam with their broods
at a distance from farm buildings, losses must be expected.
THE BOBOLINK, OR RICEBIRD.
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus.)
The bobolink (fig. 9) is a common summer resident of the United
States, north of about latitude 40°, and from New England westward to
the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern border. In New
England there are few birds, if any, around which so much romance
has clustered; in the South none on whose head so many maledictions
have been heaped. The bobolink, entering the United States from the
South at a time when the rice fields are freshly sown, pulls up the young
plants and feeds upon the seed. Its stay, however, is not long, and it
soon hastens northward, where it is welcomed as a herald of summer.
During its sojourn in the Northern States it feeds mainly upon insects
and small seeds of useless plants; but while rearing its young, insects
constitute its chief food, and almost the exclusive diet of its brood.
After the young are able to fly, the whole family gathers into a small flock
aud begins to live almost entirely upon vegetable food. This consists
for the most part of weed seeds, since in the North these birds do not
appear to molest grain to any greatextent. Theyeata few oats, but their
stomachs do not reveal a great quantity of this or any other grain. AS
the season advances they gather into larger flocks and move southward,
“until by the end of August nearly all have left their breeding grounds.
‘On their way they frequent the reedy marshes about the mouths of
‘vivers and on the inland waters of the coast region, subsisting largely
“upon wild rice. After leaving the Northern States they are commonly
‘known as reed birds, and having become very fat are treated as game.
15620—No. 54——2
18
They begin to arrive on the rice fields in the latter part of August
and during the next month make havoc in the ripening crop. It ii
unfortunate that the rice districts lie exactly in the track of their fal
migration, since the abundant supply of food thus offered has undoubt.
edly served to attract them more and more, until most of the bobolinks
bred in the North are concentrated with disastrous effect on the south
east coast when the rice ripens in the fall. There was evidently a time
when no such supply of food awaited the birds on their journey south.
ward, and it seems probable that the introduction of rice culture in the
South, combined with the clearing of the forests in the North, thus afford-
ing a larger available breeding area, has favored an increase in the
Fig. 9.—Bobolink.
numbers of this species. The food habits of the bobolink are not nec:
essarily inimical to the interests of agriculture. It simply happens that
the rice affords a supply of food more easily obtainable than did the
wild plants which formerly occupied the same region. Were the rice
fields at a distance from the line of migration, or north of the boboliuks
breeding ground, they would probably never be molested; but lying:
as they do, directly in the path of migration, they form a recruiting
ground, where the birds can rest and accumulate flesh and strength for
the long sea flight which awaits them in their course to South America
The annual loss to rice growers on account of bobolinks has beet
estimated at $2,000,000. In the face of such losses it is evident that
19
no mere poetical sentiment should stand in the way of applying any
remedy which can be devised. It would be unsafe to assume that the
insects which the birds consume during their residence in the North
can compensate for such destruction. If these figures are any approxi-
mation to the truth, the ordinary farmer will not believe that the
bobolink benefits the Northern half of the country nearly as much as
it damages the Southern half, and the thoughtful ornithologist will be
inclined to agree with him. But even if the bird really does more harm
than good, what is the remedy? For years the rice planters have been
employing men and boys to shoot the birds and drive them away from
the fields, but in spite of the millions slain every year their numbers
do not decrease. In fact, a large part of the loss sustained is not in the
grain which the birds actually eat, but in the outlay necessary to pre-
vent them from taking it all. At present there seems to be no effective
remedy short of complete extermination of the species, and this is
evidently impracticable even were it desirable.
THE REDWINGED BLACKBIRD.
(Agelaius phoniceus.)
The redwinged, or swamp, blackbird (fig. 10) is found all over the
United States and the region immediately to the north. While com-
mon in most of its range, its distribution is more or less local, mainly
on account of its partiality for swamps. Its nest is built near standing
water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the
bird may be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps
or marshes suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies,
though single families, consisting of a male with several wives, may
sometimes be found in a small slough, where each of the females builds
her nest and rears her own little brood, while her liege lord displays his
brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the Upper Mississippi
Valley it finds the conditions most favorable, for the countless prairie
sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes form nesting
sites for thousands of redwings; and there are bred the immense flocks
‘which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the West.
After the breeding season is over, the birds collect in flocks to migrate,
and remain thus associated throughout the winter.
Many complaints have been made against the redwing, and several
States have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause
great damage to grain in the West, especially in the Upper Mississippi
Valley; and the rice growers of the South say that it eats rice. No
complaints have been received from the Northeastern portion of the
country, where the bird is much less abundant than in the West and
South.
An examination of 725 stomachs showed that vegetable matter forms
74 per cent of the food, while the animal matter, mainly insects, forms
20
but 26 per cent. A little more than 10 per cent consists of beetles,
mostly harmful species. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount to 4 per
cent of the year’s food, but in June reach 25 per cent. As weevils are
among the most harmful insects known, their destruction should con-
done for at least some of the sins of which the bird has been accused.
Grasshoppers constitute nearly 5 per cent of the food, while the rest of
the animal matter is made up of various insects, a few snails, and crus-
taceans. Several dragon flies were found, but these were probably
picked up dead, for they are too active to be taken alive, unless by one
of the flycatchers. So far as the insect food as a whole is concerned,
the redwing may be considered entirely beneficial.
The interest in the vegetable food of this bird centers around the
Fig. 10.—-Redwinged blackbird.
grain. Only three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in appre
ciable quantities in the stomachs, and they aggregate but little more
than 13 per cent of the whole food, oats forming nearly half of this
amount. In view of the many complaints that the redwing eats grain,
this record is surprisingly small. The crow blackbird has been found to
eat more than three times as much. In the case of the crow, corn forms
yne-fifth of the food, so that the redwinged blackbird, whose diet is made
up of only a trifle more than one-eighth of grain, is really one of the
least destructive species; but the most important item of this bird’s
food is weed seed, which forms practically the whole food in winter and
about 57 per cent of the whole year’s fare. The principal weed seeds
21
eaten are those of ragweed, barn grass, smartweed, and about a dozer
others. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact that the
birds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily accessi-
ble, and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful
in April. The redwing eats very little fruit and does practically no
harm in the garden or orchard.
While it is impossible to dispute the mass of testimony which has
accumulated concerning its grain-eating propensity, the stomach exam-
inations show that the habit must be local rather than general. As
the area of cultivation increases and the breeding grounds are cur-
tailed, the species is likely to become reduced in numbers and conse-
quently less harmful. Nearly seven-eighths of the redwing’s food is
made up of weed seed or of insects injurious to agriculture, indicating
unmistakably that the bird should be protected, except, perhaps, in a
few places where it is too abundant.
THE MEADOW LARK, OR OLD FIELD LARK.
(Sturnella magna.)
The meadow lark (fig. 11) is a common and well-known bird occurring
from the Atlantic Coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to
a closely related subspecies, which extends thence westward to the
Pacific. It winters from our southern border as far north as the Dis-
trict of Columbia, southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. Although
it is a bird of the plains, finding its most congenial haunts in the
prairies of the West, it does not disdain the meadows and mowing
lands of New England. It nests on the ground and is so terrestrial
in its habits that it seldom perches on trees, preferring a fence rail or
a telegraph pole. When undisturbed, it may be seen walking about
with a peculiar dainty step, stopping every few moments to look about
and give its tail a nervous flirt or to sound a note or two of its clear
whistle.
The meadow lark is almost wholly beneficial, although a few com-
plaints have been made that it pulls sprouting grain, and one farmer
claims that it eats clover seed. As a rule, however, it is looked upon
with favor and is not disturbed.
In the 238 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects)
constituted 73 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 27 per
cent. As would naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species,
such as beetles, bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies,
wasps, and spiders. A number of the stomachs were taken from birds
that had been killed when the ground was covered with snow, but still
they contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird’s skill
in finding proper food under adverse circumstances. ;
Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most
important, constituting 29 per cent of the entire year’s food and 69 per
cent of the food in August. It is scarcely necessary to enlarge upon
22
this point, but it can readily be seen what an effect a number of these
birds must have on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper
season. Of the 238 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 178,
or more than two-thirds, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one
was filled with fragments of 37 of these insects. This seems to show
conclusively that grasshoppers are preferred and are eaten whenever
they can be procured. The great number taken in August is especially
noticeable. This is essentially the grasshopper month, i. e., the month
when grasshoppers reach their maximum abundance; and the stomach
examination has shown that a large number of birds resort to this diet
in August, no matter what may be the food during the rest of the year.
Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of
the meadow lark’s food, amounting to nearly 21 per cent, of which about
one-third are predaceous ground beetles. The others are all harmful
Fia. 11.—Meadow lark.
species, and when it is considered that the bird feeds exclusively on the
ground, it seems remarkable that so few useful ground beetles are eaten.
Many of them have a disgusting odor, and possibly this may occasion-
ally save them from destruction by birds, especially when other food is
abundant. Caterpillars, too, form a very constant element, and in May
constitute over 28 per cent of the whole food. May is the month when
the dreaded cutworm begins its deadly career, and then the bird does
some of its best work. Most of these caterpillars are ground feeders,
and are overlooked by birds which habitually frequent trees; but the
meadow lark finds them and devours them by thousands. The remain-
der of the insect food is made up of a few ants, wasps, and spiders, with
a few bugs, including some chinch bugs.
The vegetable food consists of grain, weed, and other hard seeds.
Grain in general amounts to 14, and weed and other seeds to 12 per cent.
23
The grain, principally corn, is mostly eaten m winter and early spring,
and must be therefore simply waste kernels; only a trifle is consumed
in summer and autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of sprout-
ing grain was discovered. Clover seed was found in only six stomachs,
and but little ineach. Seeds of weeds, principally ragweed, barn grass,
and smartweed, are eaten from November to April, inclusive, but during
the rest of the year are replaced by insects.
Briefly stated, more than half of the meadow lark’s food consists of
harmfulinsects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious weeds
or waste grain, and the remainder is made up of useful beetles or neu-
tral insects and spiders. A strong point in the bird’s favor is that,
although naturally an insect eater, it is able to subsist on vegetable food,
and consequently is not forced to migrate in cold weather any farther
than is necessary to find ground free from snow. This explains why it
remains for the most part in the United States during winter, and
moves northward as soon as the snow disappears from its usual haunts.
There is one danger to which the meadow lark is exposed. As its
flesh is highly esteemed the bird is often shot for the table, but it is
entitled to all possible protection, and to slaughter it for game is the
least profitable way to utilize a valuable species.
THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
(Icterus galbula.)
Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness of song, and food habits to which
no exception can be taken are some of the striking characteristics of
the Baltimore oriole (fig. 12). In summer this species is found through-
out the northern half of the United States east of the Great Plains,
and is welcomed and loved in every country home in that broad land.
In the Northern Stutes it arrives rather late, and is usually first seen,
or heard, foraging amidst the early bloom of the apple trees, where it
searches for caterpillars or feeds daintily on the surplus blossoms.
Its nest commands hardly less admiration than the beauty of its
plumage or the excellence of its song. Hanging from the tip of the
outermost bough of a stately elm, it is almost inaccessible, and so
strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the elements.
By watching an oriole which has a nest one may see it searching
among the smaller branches of some neighboring tree, carefully exam-
ining each leaf for caterpillars, and occasionally trilling a few notes to
its mate. Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that
caterpillars constitute the largest item of its fare. In 113 stomachs
they formed 34 per cent of the food, and are eaten in varying quantities
during all the months in which the bird remains in this country,
although the fewest are eaten in July, when a little fruit is also taken.
The other insects consist of beetles, bugs, ants, wasps, grasshoppers,
and some spiders. The beetles are principally click beetles, the larvee
of which are among the most destructive insects known; and the bugs
24
include plant and bark lice, both very harmful, but so small and
obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. Ants are eaten
mostly in spring, grasshoppers in July and August, and wasps and
spiders with considerable regularity throughout the season.
Vegetable matter amounts to only a little more than 16 per cent of
the food during the bird’s stay in the United States, So that the possi.
bility of the oriole doing much damage to crops 1s very limited. The bird
has been accused of eating peas to a con siderable extent, but remains
of peas were found in only two stomachs. One writer says that it
damages grapes, but none were found. In fact, a few blackberries and-
ANY Ne iy
Ny
ly
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BE Gia Y Hy) L; yy
Z| ¢ i) 4 Xf) Me
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Fia, 12.—Baltimore oriole.
cherries comprised the only cultivated fruit detected in the stomachs,
the remainder of the vegetable food being wild fruit and a few miscel.
laneous seeds.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD, OR GRACKLE.
Quiscalus quiscula.
€ |
The crow blackbird (fig. 13) or one of its subspecies is a familiar
object in all.of the States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is a resi-
dent throughout the year as far north as southern Illinois, and in sum-
mer extends its range into British America. In the Mississippi Valley
it. is one of the most abundant birds, preferring to nest in the artificial
groves and windbreaks near farms instead of the natural “timber”
which it formerly used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings,
often in considerable colonics. Farther east, in New England, it is only
locally abundant, though frequently seen in migration. After July if
25
becomes very rare, or entirely disappears, owing to the fact that it col-
lects in large flocks and retires to some quiet place, where food is
abundant and where it can remain undisturbed during the molting
season, but in the latter days of August and throughout September it
usually reappears in immense numbers before moving southward.
It is evident that a bird so large and so abundant may exercise an
important influence upon the agricultural welfare of the country it
inhabits. The crow blackbird has been accused of many sins, such as
stealing grain and fruit and robbing the nests of other birds; but the
farmers do not undertake any war of extermination- against it, and,
for the most part, allow it to nest about the premises undisturbed. An
examination of 2,258 stomachs showed that nearly one-third of its food
consists of insects, of which the greater part are injurious. The bird
Fic. 13.—Crow blackbird.
also eats a few snails, crayfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occasion-
ally a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other
birds’ nests to any great extent, as remains of birds and birds’ eggs
amount to less than one-half of 1 per cent.
It is, however, on account of its vegetable food that the grackle is
most likely to be accused of doing damage. Grain is eaten during the
whole year, and during only a short time in summer is other food
attractive enough to induce the bird to alter its diet. The grain taken
in the winter and spring months probably consists of waste kernels
gathered from the stubble. The stomachs do not indicate that the bird
pulls sprouting grain; but the wheat eaten in July and August, and
the corn eaten in the fall, are probably taken from fields of standing
26
grain. The total grain consumed during the year constitutes 45 per
cent of the whole food, but it is safe to say that at least half is waste
grain, and consequently of no value. Although the crow blackbird
eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, and some wild
fruit in the fall, it apparently does no damage in this way.
Large flocks of crow blackbirds no doubt do considerable injury to
grain crops, and there seems to be no remedy except the destruction
of the birds, which is in itself expensive. During the breeding season,
however, the species does much good by eating insects and by feeding
them to its young, which are reared almost entirely upon this food.
The bird does the greatest amount of good in spring, when it follows
the plow in search of large grub worms, of which it is so fond that it
sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them. The farmer must
decide for himself whether or not these birds cause more damage than
can be repaid by insect destruction; but when they destroy an entire
crop it is no consolation to know that they have already eaten a multi-
tude of insects which, if left alone, would have accomplished the same
result.
THE SPARROWS.!
Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action.
There are some forty species, with nearly as many subspecies, in North
America, but their differences, both in plumage and habits, are in
most cases too obscure to be readily recognized, aud not more than
half a dozen forms are generally known in any one locality. All the
species are more or less migratory, but so widely are they distributed
that there is probably no part of the country where some can not be
found throughout the year.
While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by any means
confine themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, and
especially in the breeding season, they eat many insects, and probably
feed their young largely upon the same food. An examination of the
stomachs of three species—the song sparrow (Melospiza), chipping
sparrow (Spizella socialis), and field sparrow (Spizella pusilla) (fig. 14)—
shows that about one-third of the food consists of insects, comprising
many injurious beetles, such as snout-beetles or weevils, and leaf-beetles.
Many grasshoppers are eaten, and in the case of the chipping sparrow
these insects form one eighth of the food. Grasshoppers would seem
to be rather large morsels, but the bird probably confines itself to the
smaller species; indeed, this is indicated by the fact that the greatest
amount (over 36 per cent) is eaten in J une, when the larger species are
still young and the small species most numerous. Besides the insects
already mentioned, many wasps and bugs are taken. Predaceous and
parasitic Hymenoptera and predaceous beetles, all useful insects, are
'The sparrows here mentioned are all native species. For a full account of the
English sparrow, including its introduction, habits, and depredations, see Bull. No. 1
of the Division of Ornithology, published in 1889,
27
eaten only to a slight extent, so that as a whole the Sparrows’ insect
diet may be considered beneficial.
Their vegetable food is limited almost exclusively to hard seeds
This might seem to indicate that the birds feed to some extent upon
grain, but the stomachs examined show only one kind—oats—and but
little of that. The great bulk of the food is made up of grass and weed
seed, which form almost the entire diet during winter, and the amount
cousumed is immense.
Anyone acquainted with the agricultural region of the Upper Missis-
sippi Valley can not have failed to notice the enormous growth of
weeds in every waste spot where the original sward has been disturbed.
>
\
Fig. 14.—Field sparrow.
By the roadside, on the borders of cultivated fields, or in abandoned
fields, wherever they can obtain a foothold, masses of rank weeds spring
up, and often form impenetrable thickets which afford food and shelter
for immense numbers of birds and enable them to withstand great cold
and the most terrible blizzards. A person visiting one of these weed
patches on a sunny morning in January, when the thermometer is 20°
or more below zero, will be struck with the life and animation of the
busy little inhabitants. Instead of sitting forlorn and half frozen, they
may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and fluttering,
and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If one
28
of them be killed and examined, it will be found in excellent condi-
tion—in fact, a veritable ball of fat.
The snowbird (Junco hyemalis) and tree sparrow (Spizella monticola)
are perhaps the most numerous of all the sparrows. The latter fairly
swarms all over the Northern States in winter, arriving from the north
early in October and leaving in April. Examination of many stomachs
shows that in winter the tree sparrow feeds entirely upon seeds of
weeds; and probably each bird consumes about one-fourth of an ounce
aday. In an article contributed to the New York Tribune in 1881 the
writer estimated the amount of weed seed annually destroyed by these
birds in the State of Iowa. Upon the basis of one-fourth of an ounce
of seed eaten daily by each bird, and supposing that the birds averaged
ten to each square mile, and that they remain in their winter range
two hundred days, we shall have a total of 1,750,000 pounds, or 875
tons, of weed seed consumed by this one species in a single season.
Large as these figures may seem, they certainly fall far short of the
reality. The estimate of ten birds to a square mile is much within the
truth, for the tree sparrow is certainty more abundant than this in
winter in Massachusetts, where the food supply is less than in the
Western States, and [ have known places in lowa where several thou-
sand could be seen within the space of a few acres. This estimate,
moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of fact, there are at
least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually feed on these
seeds during winter.
Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced in winter by the white-
throated sparrow, the white-crowned sparrow, the fox sparrow, the song
sparrow, the field sparrow, and several others; so that all over the
country there are a vast number of these seed eaters at work during
the colder months reducing next year’s crop of worse than useless
plants.
In treating of the value of birds, it has been customary to consider
them mainly as insect destroyers; but the foregoing illustration seems
to show that seed eaters have a useful function, which has never been
fully appreciated.
THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK.
(Zamelodia ludoviciana.)
The beautiful rose-breasted grosbeak (fig. 15) breeds in the northern
half of the United States east of the Missouri River, but spends its
winters beyond our boundaries. Unfortunately it is not abundant in
New England, and nowhere as plentiful as it should be. It frequents
groves and orchards rather than gardens or dooryards, but probably
the beauty of the male is the greatest obstacle to its increase; the fully
adult, bird is pure black and white, with a broad patch of brilliant
rose color upon the breast and under each wing. On account of this
29
attractive plumage the birds are highly prized for ladies’ hats; and
consequently have been shot in season and out, till the wonder is not
that there are so few, but that any remain at all.
When the Colorado potato beetle first swept over the land, and nat-
uralists and farmers were anxious to discover whether or not there were
any enemies which would prey upon the pest, the grosbeak was almost
the only bird seen to eat the beetles. Further observation confirmed
the fact, and there can be no reasonable doubt that where the bird is
abundant it has contributed very much to the abatement of the pest
which has been noted during the last decade. But this is not the only
good which the bird does, for many other noxious insects besides the
pctato beetle are also eaten.
The vegetable food of the grosbeak consists of buds and blossoms of
forest trees, and seeds, but the only damage of which it has been
Wn a YZ
WIS Le
ity ay
LY fA
WG iy
‘gay See eas y
“4y WN Kes 174
4 ay \ 4
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VD
Fia. 15.—Rose-breasted grosbeak.
accused is the stealing of green peas. The writer has observed it eat-
ing peas and has examined the stomachs of several that had been
killed in the very act. The stomachs contained a few peas and enough
potato beetles, old and young, as well as other harmful insects, to pay
for all the peas the birds would be likely to eat in a whole season.
The garden where this took place adjoined a small potato field which
earlier in the season had been so badly infested with the beetles that
the vines were completely riddled. The grosbeaks visited the field
every day, and finally brought their fledged young. The young birds
stood in a row on the topmost rail of the fence and were fed with the
beetles which their parents gathered. When a careful inspection was
made a few days later, not a beetle, old or young, could be found; the
birds had swept them from the field and saved the potatoes.
30
It is not easy to advise measures either for increasing the numbers
of this bird or inducing it to take up its residence on the farm. Nat-
urally it inhabits thin, open woods or groves, and the change from such
places to orchards would be simple—in fact, has already been made in
some parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio. In New England the bird is
somewhat rare, and perhaps the best that can be done here or elsewhere
is to see that it is thoroughly protected.
THE SWALLOWS.
There are seven common species of swallows within the limits of the
United States, four of which have, to some extent, abandoned their
Fia. 16.—Barn swallow.
primitive nesting habits and attached themselves to the abodes of
man. As a group, swallows are gregarious and social in an eminent
degree. Some species build nests in large colonies, occasionally num
bering thousands; in the case of others only two or three pairs are
found together; while still others nest habitually in single pairs.
Their habits are too familiar to require any extended description.
Their industry and tirelessness are wonderful, and during the day it is
rare to see swallows at rest except just before their departure for the
South, when they assemble upon telegraph wires or upon the roofs of
buildings, apparently making plans for the journey.
31
A noticeable characteristic of several of the species is thr attachment
to man. In the eastern part of the country the barn swallow (Chelidon
erythrogastra) (fig. 16) now builds exclusively under roofs, having
entirely abandoned the rock caves and cliffs in which it formerly nested.
More recently the cliff swallow (Petrochelidon lunifrons) has found a
‘better nesting site under the eaves of buildings than was afforded by
the overhanging cliffs of earth or stone which it once used, and to which
it still resorts occasionally in the East, and habitually in the unsettled
West. The martin (Progne subis) and white-bellied swallow (Tachy-
cineta bicolor) nest either in houses supplied for the purpose, in aban.
doned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies in rocks. The other
species have not yet abandoned their primitive habitats, but possibly
may do so as the country becomes more thickly settled.
Field observation will convince any ordinarily attentive person that
the food of swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in
mid-air, or perhaps in some cases picked from the tops of tall grass or
weeds. This observation is borne out by an examination of stomachs,
which shows that the food consists of many small species of beetles
which are much on the wing; many species of Diptera (mosquitoes and
their allies), with large quantities of flying ants and a few insects of
similar kinds. Most of them are either injurious or annoying, and the
numbers destroyed by swallows are not only beyond calculation, but
almost beyond imagination.
The white-bellied swallow eats a considerable number of berries of
the bayberry, or wax myrtle. During migrations and in winter it has a
habit of roosting in these shrubs, and it probably obtains the fruit at
that time.
It is a mistake to tear down the nests of a colony of cliff swallows
from the eaves of a barn, for so far from disfiguring a building the
nests make a picturesque addition, and their presence should be
encouraged by every device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows
can be induced to build their nests in a particular locality, otherwise
suitable, by providing a quantity of mud to be used as mortar. Barn
swallows may also be encouraged by cutting a small hole in the gable
of the barn, while martins and white-bellied swallows will be grateful
for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in some higher situation.
THE CEDAR BIRD.
(Ampelis cedrorum.)
The cedar waxwing, or cherry bird (fig. 17), inhabits the whole of the
United States, but is much less common in the West. Although the
great bulk of the species retires southward in winter, the bird is occa-
sionally found in every State during the colder months, especially if
wild berries are abundant. Its proverbial fondness for cherries has
given rise to its popular name, and much complaint has been made on
account of the fruit eaten. Observation has shown, however, that its
32
depredations are confined to trees on which the fruit ripens earliest,
while later varieties are comparatively untouched. This is probably
owing to the fact that when wild fruits ripen they are preferred to cher-
ries, and really constitute the bulk of the cedar bird’s diet.
In 152 stomachs examined animal matter formed only 13 and vegeta
ble 87 per cent, showing that the bird is not wholly a fruit eater. With
the exception of a few snails, all the animal food consisted of insects,
mainly beetles—and all but one more or less noxious, the famous elm
leaf-beetle being among the number. Bark or scale lice were found
in several stomachs, while the remainder of the animal food was made
up of grasshoppers, bugs, and the like. Three nestlings were found to
have been fed almost entirely on insects.
Of the 87 per cent of vegetable food, 74 consisted entirely of wild
fruit or seeds and 13 of cultivated fruit, but a large part of the latter
OG Uh Py
2 SO.
Tie
Fig. 17.—Cedar bird.
was made up of blackberries and raspberries, and it is very doubtful
whether they represented cultivated varieties. Cherry stealing is the
chief complaint against this bird, but of the 152 stomachs only 9, all
taken in June and July, contained any remains of cultivated cherries,
and these aggregate but 5 per cent of the year’s food. As 41 stomachs
were collected in those months, it is evident that the birds do not live
to any great extent on cultivated cherries.
Although the cherry bird is not a great insect destroyer, it does some
good work in this way, since it probably rears its young mostly upon
Insect food. On the other hand, it does not devour nearly as mucb
cultivated fruit as has been asserted, and most, if not all, of the damage
cal be prevented. The bird should theretore be considered a useful
species, aud as such should be accorded all possible protection.
33
THE CATBIRD.
(Galeoscoptes carolinensis.)
The catbird (fig. 18), like the thrasher, is a lover of swamps, and
delights to make its home in a tangle of wild grapevines, greenbriers,
and shrubs, where it is safe from attack and can find its favorite food
in abundance. It is found throughout the United States west to the
Rocky Mountains; occurs also in Washington, Idaho, and Utah, and
extends northward into British America. It winters in the Southern
States, Cuba, Mexico, and Central America.
The catbird always attracts attention, and the intruder upon its
haunts soon understands that he is not welcome. There is no mistaking
the meaning of the sneering voice with which he is saluted, and there
is little doubt that this gave rise to the popular prejudice against the
—_ wie
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wy
WH 5, ‘ DS i},
Ai), /
ane
Fic. 18.—Catbird.
bird; but the feeling has been increased by the fact that the species
is sometimes a serious annoyance to fruit growers. All such reports,
however, seem to come from the prairie country of the West. In New
England, according to the writer’s experience the catbird is seldom
seen about gardens or orchards; the reason may possibly be found in
the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing shrubs which afford so large
a part of this bird’s food are conspicuously absent. With the settle-
ment of this region comes an extensive planting of orchards, vineyards,
and small fruit gardens, which furnish shelter and nesting sites for the
catbird, as well as for other species, with a consequent large increase
in their numbers, but without providing the native fruits upon which
they have been accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances, what
is more natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruits for their
15620—No, 543
34
supplies? The remedy is obvious; cultivated fruits can be protected
by the simple expedient of planting wild species or others which are
preferred by the birds. Some experiments with catbirds in captivity
showed that the Russian mulberry was preferred to any cultivated fruit
that could be offered.
The stomachs of 213 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44
per cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food.’ Ants,
beetles, caterpillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the
animal food, the remainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects
and spiders. One-third of the vegetable food consists of cultivated
fruits, or those which may be cultivated, such as strawberries, raspber-
ries, and blackberries; but while we debit the bird with the whole of
this, it is probable—and in the eastern and well-wovded part of the
country almost certain—that a large part was obtained from wild vines.
The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, such as cherries,
dogwood, sour gum, elder berries, greenbrier, spice berries, black alder,
sumac, and poison ivy.
Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by destroying
small fruit, the bird can not be considered injurious. On the contrary,
in most parts of the country it does far more good than harm, and the
evil it does can be reduced appreciably by the methods already pointed
out.
THE BROWN THRASHER.
(Harporhynchus rufus.)
The brown thrasher (fig. 19) breeds throughout the United States east
of the Great Plains, and winters in the south Atlantic and Gulf States.
It occasionally visits the garden or orchard, but nests in swamps or in
groves standing upon low ground. While it generally prefers a thickly
grown retreat, it sometimes builds in a pile of brush at a distance from
trees. On account of its more retiring habits it is not so conspicuods
as the robin, although it may be equally abundant. Few birds can
exce] the thrasher in sweetness of song, but it is so shy that its notes
are not heard often enough to be appreciated. Its favorite time for sing-
ing is the early morning, when, perched on the top of some tall bush or
low tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which would do credit to
a mockingbird. Indeed, in the South, where the latter bird is abun-
dant, the thrasher is known as the sandy mocker.
The food of the brown thrasher consists of both fruit and insects.
An examination of 121 stomachs showed 36 per cent of vegetable and
64 of animal food, practically all insects, and mostly taken in spring
before fruit is ripe. Half the insects were beetles, and the remainder
chiefly grasshoppers, caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. A few predaceous
' The investigation of the food of the catbird, brown thrasher, and house wren was
made by Mr. Sylvester D. Judd and published in the Yearbook of the Department
of Agriculture for 1895, pp. 405-408.
35
beetles were eaten, but, on the whole, its work as an insect destroyer
may be considered beneficial.
Eight per cent of the food is made up of fruits like raspberries and
currants which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least
are as likely to belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made
up mostly of scattered kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle,
amounting to only 3 per cent, and though some of the corn may be
taken from newly planted fields it is amply paid for by the May beetles
which are eaten at the same time. The rest of the food consists of
wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the brown thrasher is a useful
bird, and probably does just’as good work in its secluded retreats as
Fig. 19.—Brown thrasher.
it would about the garden, for the swamps and groves are no doubt
the breeding grounds of many insects that migrate thence to attack
the farmers’ crops.
THE HOUSE WREN.
(Troglodytes aédon.)
The diminutive house wren (fig. 20) frequents barns and gardens, and
particularly old orchards in which the trees are partially decayed. He
makes his nest in a hollow branch where perhaps a woodpecker had a
domicile the year before, but he is a pugnacious character, and if he
happens to fancy one of the boxes that have been put up for the bluebirds
he does not hesitate to take it. He is usually not slow to avail himself
of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation.
As regards food habits, the house wren is entirely beneficial. Practi-
cally, he can be said to live upon animal food alone, for an examination
36
of 52 stomachs showed that 98 per cent of the stomach contents was
made up of insects or their allies, and only 2 per cent was vege-
table, including bits of grass and similar matter, evidently taken by
accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of grasshoppers
and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders. As the
house wren is a prolific breeder, frequently rearing from twelve to six-
teen young in a season, a family of these birds must cause considerabie
reduction in the number of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious
foragers, searching every tree, shrub, or vine for caterpillars, exam-
ining every post and rail of the fence, and every cranny in the wall for
insects or spiders. They do not, as a rule, fly far afield, but work
ear ; Zee Es
YN sh t OAS 2a
Pon n/n ght
is iA ean? Z TE
b- Sa
Fia. 20.—Houso wren.
industriously in the immediate vicinity of their nests. In this way
they become valuable aids in the garden or orchard, and by providing
suitable nesting boxes they may be induced to take up residence where
their services will do most good. Their eccentricities in the selection
of a home are well known. Almost anything, from an old cigar box to
a tomato can, an old teapot, a worn-out boot, or a horse’s skull, is
acceptable, provided it be placed well up from the ground and out of
reach of cats and other prowlers,
It does not seem possible to have too many wrens, and every effort
should be made to protect them and to encourage their nesting about
the house.
37
THE ROBIN.
(Merula migratoria.)
The robin (fig. 21) is found throughout the United States east of the
Great Plains, and is represented farther west by a slightly different
subspecies. It extends far north through Canada, and is found even
in Alaska. Although the great bulk of the species leaves the Northern
States in winter, a few individuals remain in sheltered swamps, where
wild berries furnish an abundant supply of food.
The robin builds its nest in orchards and gardens, and occasionally
takes advantage of a nook about the house, or under the shelter of the
roof of a shed or outbuilding. Its food habits have sometimes caused
apprehension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and other
small fruits, particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many
complaints have been lodged against it, and some persons have gone
Fig, %1.—Robin.
so far as to condemn the bird. The robin is, however, too valuable to
be exterminated, and choice fruit can be readily protected from its
depredations.
An examination of 330 stomachs shows that over 42 per cent of its food
is animal matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up
largely of small fruits or berries. Over 19 per cent consists of beetles,
about one-third of which are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in
spring and fall, when other insects are scarce. Grasshoppers make up
about one-tenth of the whole food, but in August comprise over 30 per
cent. Caterpillars form about 6 per cent, while the rest of the animal
food, about 7 per cent, is made up of various insects, with a few spiders,
snails, and angle-worms. All the grasshoppers, caterpillars, and bugs,
with a large portion of the beetles, are injurious, and it is safe to say
that noxious insects comprise more than one-third of the robin’s food.
38
Vegetable food forms nearly 58 per cent of the stomach contents, over
47 being wild fruits, and only a little more than 4 per cent being possibly
cultivated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent
was found in the stomachs in June and July, but only a trifle in August.
Wild fruit, on the contrary, is eaten in every month, and constitutes a
staple food during half the year. No less than forty-one species were
identified in the stomachs; of these, the most important were four spe-
cies of dogwood, three of wild cherries, three of wild grapes, four of
greenbrier, two of holly, two of elder; and cranberries, huckleberries,
blueberries, barberries, service berries, hackberries, and persimmons,
with four species of sumac, and various other seeds not strictly fruit.
The depredations of the robin seem to be confined to the smaller and
earlier fruits, and few, if any, complaints have been made against it
on the score of eating apples, peaches, pears, grapes, or even late
cherries. By the time these are ripe the forests and hedges are
teeming with wild fruits, which the bird evidently finds more to its
taste. The cherry, unfortunately, ripens so early that it is almost the
only fruit accessible at a time when the bird’s appetite has been sharp-
ened by a long-continued diet of insects, earthworms, and dried berries,
and it is no wonder that at first the rich juicy morsels are greedily
eaten. In view of the fact that the robin takes ten times as much wild
as cultivated fruit, it seems unwise to destroy the birds to save so
little. Nor is this necessary, for by a little care both may be preserved.
Where much fruit is grown, it is no great loss to give up one tree to the
birds; and in some cases the crop can be protected by scarecrows.
Where wild fruit is not abundant, a few fruit-bearing shrubs and vines
judiciously planted will serve for ornament and provide food for the
birds. The Russian mulberry is a vigorous grower and a profuse
bearer, ripening at the same time as the cherry, and, so far as observa
tion has gone, most birds seem to prefer its fruit to any other. It is
believed that a number of these trees planted around the garden or
srchard would fully protect the more valuable fruits.
Many persons have written about the delicate discrimination of birds
for choice fruit, asserting that only the finest and costliest varieties are
selected. This is contrary to all careful scientific observation. Birds,
unlike human beings, seem to prefer fruit like the mulberry, that is
sweetly insipid, or that has some astringent or bitter quality like the
chokecherry or holly. The so-called black alder (Ilex verticillata),
which is a species of holly, has bright scarlet berries, as bitter as
quinine, that ripen late in October, and remain on the bushes through
November, and though frost grapes, the fruit of the Virginia creeper,
and several species of dogwood are abundant at the same time, the
birds eat the berries of the holly to a considerable extent, as shown by
the seeds found in the stomachs. It is moreover a remarkable fact
that the wild fruits upon which the birds feed largely are those which
man neither gathers for his own use nor adopts for cultivation.
39
THE BLUEBIRD.
(Sialia sialis.)
The common and familiar bluebird (fig..22) is an inhabitant of all the
States east of the Rocky Mountains from the Gulf of Mexico north-
ward into Canada. It winters as far north as southern Illinois, in the
Mississippi Valley, and Pennsylvania in the east; in spring it is one
of the first migrants to arrive in the Northern States, and is always
welcomed as an indication of the final breaking up of winter. It fre-
quents orchards and gardens, where it builds its nest in hollow trees,
or takes advantage of a nesting box provided by the enterprising
farmer’s boy.
So far as known, this bird has not been accused of stealing fruit or
of preying upon any crops. An examination of 205 stomachs showed
Fig. 22.—Bluebird.
that 76 per cent of the food consists of insects and their allies, while
the other 24 per cent is made up of various vegetable substances, found
mostly in stomachs taken in winter. Beetles constitute 28 per cent of
the whole food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 11, and various insects,
including quite a number of spiders, comprise the remainder of the
insect diet. All these are more or less harmful, except a few preda-
ceous beetles, which amount to 8 per cent, but in view of the large
consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we can at least condone
this offense, if such it may be called. The destruction of grasshoppers
is very noticeable in the months of August and September, when these
insects form more than 60 per cent of the diet.
It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed
more by abundance than by choice. Predaceous beetles are eaten in
40
spring, as they are among the first insects to appear; but in early sum:
mer caterpillars form an important part of the diet, and are replaced a
little later by grasshoppers. Beetles are eaten at all times, except when
grasshoppers are more easily obtained.
So far as its vegetable food is concerned, the bluebird is positively
harmless. The only trace of avy useful product in the stomachs con-
sisted of a few blackberry seeds, and even these more probably belonged
to wild than cultivated varieties. Following is a list of the various
seeds which were found: Blackberry, chokeberry, juniperberry, poke,
berry, partridgeberry, greenbriar, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, holly,
strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarsaparilla, sumac (several
species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This list
shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to sup-
ply its needs, and indicates that by encouraging the growth of some of
these plants, many of which are highly ornamental, the bird can be
induced to make its home on the premises,
Bluebirds are so well known that it seems unnecessary to urge any-
thing more in their favor; but in view of the fact that large numbers
were destroyed during the severe storm of 1895, more than ordinary
vigilance should be exercised in protecting them until they have
regained their normal abundance.
BuLLeTIN No. 9
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES
IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE
THE FOOD OF CUCKOOS - - By F. E. L. Beal, B. S.
THE FOOD OF SHRIKES - By Sylvester D. Judd, Ph. D.
Prepared under the direction of
Dr. C. HART MERRIAM
CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1898
BULLETIN No. 9
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES
IN THEIR RELATION TO AGRICULTURE
THE FOOD OF CUCKOOS By F. HE. L. Beal, B. S.
THE FOOD OF SHRIKES By Sylvester D. Judd, Ph. D,
Prepared under the direction of
Dr. C. HART MERRIAM
CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
tg
Zo
Sl
BS
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1898
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY,
Washington, D. C., June 15, 1898.
Srr: I have the honor to transmit herewith, and recommend for pub-
lication as Bulletin 9 of this Division, two papers on the food habits
of birds, based on investigations conducted in the laboratory of the
Biological Survey by Prof. F. E. L. Beal and Mr. Sylvester D. Judd.
Respectfully,
C. Hart MERRIAM,
Chief, Biological Survey.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
THE FOOD OF CUCKOOS. Page.
General motes. 2 :..sc2c cs sinncdac cama eon pect ee nian oghes Joon EES 7
Examination of stomachs...... 2... 2.22222. .0 2222 eee cee eee eee 8
General insect food of cuckoos ...... 2.222.222 .222 coee eee eee eee cee eee 11-14
Beetles .......----.... a heiaiadiraalumed meiv ges See aeeasemaieeleecs ¢ 11
BUGS (Hemiptera) sais oe ciciniccians ocame ine sete a seen anes ce de netsh oar oe 12
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera)..---.. 2.222.220. cece eee ce cee eee eee cess 12
Caterpillars 62.65.50 Geel cictoeraemabeae a nade lend eae mendes ate A abi 1
Miscellaneous insects ............... 2.222.222. epee Meh aheactty a! 13
Insects identified in the stomachs of cuckoos ............-22-2------- 14
THE FOOD OF SHRIKES.
Hiabite:d fshnultes i iaiseee cca saves atau Mice haetas von levees eins aetna 15
Northern shrike or butcherbird ............222.. 022220 c200 cece eeeeee eee 17
Birds eaten by the butcherbird..-...........---. 2225-22222 0002-2 e eee 17
Mammals eaten by the butcherbird.....-.......22--.-.--- 2222-02 00+ 19
Insects eaten by the butcherbird ...--....... 222-2. 0220000222 ee eee eee 19
PNG OR Bern CAG SHV Cer wie eset wleheg ws hatin Sect cena este ada ae ie ew eaten 20
Birds eaten by the loggerhead ........-...--.--. ee 20
Mammals eaten by the loggerhead.........---. 0-2-2222 022220 e220 eee 21
Other vertebrates eaten by the loggerhead -......---..---.--2-----+- 21
Insects eaten by the loggerhead ..-......---. 202-22 --202- ee ee eee eee 22
Food of nestling loggerhead shrikeS...........---2.-22-----2222 2022+ 24
SSULDD TAT ea yoo = aeis tei sao cacti haat ah tate ti Seek ctl ei fre Pape re echcent 24
List of invertebrates destroyed by the butcherbird.........-....----- 24
List of insects destroyed by the loggerhead....-.....---.---.-------. 25
Other invertebrates destroyed by the loggerhead ..........---..----- 25
Table showing percentages of principal elements of food of the
butcherbird and loggerhead, calculated by volume ...-...-.--.---- 26
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
PLAGE Te Butehet bind: cccccs oss oe eles cee ceed eer eee dereeyeettuets Frontispiece.
Pig... Yellow-billed Cuck00:cx2-2+ec0e sues seee see se Saceedieeeaience esses seeks ff
CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN THEIR RELATION TO
AGRICULTURE.
THE FOOD OF CUGKOOS.
By F. E. L. Brat, B.S.
GENERAL NOTES.
Cuckoos are quiet and rather shy birds. While they do not avoid
the haunts of man, they nevertheless have a way of concealing them-
’
) ) }}
uy
a
Wy
Fia. 1.—Yellow-billed cuckoo.
Selves in foliage, seldom alighting on naked branches or in exposed
places, and hence are not often seen. Their favorite resorts are open
groves or woods, the edges of forests, orchards, and clumps of trees or
shrubs. They often visit shade trees about houses, and are frequently
heard in the trees along village streets or even in city parks. In many
parts of the country they are known as ‘Rain Crows’ or ‘ Kow-kows,’
the syllables kow-kow being an imitation of their notes.
The cuckoo’s nest is usually built in bushes or small trees at no great
height from the ground, and is a flimsy affair, composed of a few sticks,
forming a mere platform for the eggs, which vary in number from two
7
8 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
to four. The European cuckoo, like our cowbird, lays its eggs in the
nests of other birds; a reprehensible habit not shared by its American
cousin, although occasional instances of such parasitism have been
observed. Our ecuckoos do not ostensibly rear more than one brood in
a season, but they frequently lay their eggs at intervals, so that the
young hatch successively, the later eggs being incubated in part by the
young.
Three species and two subspecies occur in the United States. Of
these, one species and one subspecies are restricted almost entirely to
the southern coast of Florida, and are properly West Indian birds,
The others occupy practically the whole country, except the plains and
deserts, though in winter they are found in the extreme southern part
only. The yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) breeds from the
Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada; the black-billed (Coceyzus eryth-
rophthalmus) ranges still farther north. The northward migration does
not begin until spring is well advanced, and is usually completed by
the end of May. Most of the birds leave the Northern States in
August, but some linger through September and even into October.
From an economic standpoint cuckoos rank among our most useful
birds. Their habit of remaining concealed in foliage suggests, and
close observation proves, that their diet consists for the most part of
insects—very largely caterpillars—found on trees and shrubs.
EXAMINATION OF STOMACHS.
In the laboratory of the Biological Survey 109 stomachs of the yellow-
billed and 46 of the black-billed cuckoo were examined. All were taken
between May and October, inclusive, except one of the yellow-billed
collected in Texas in January. These stomachs were obtained in
twenty States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and were fairly
distributed over the country from Louisiana and Texas to Canada, and
from Massachusetts to Kansas and Nebraska. A greater number would
have been desirable, but the contents of those examined were so uni-
form that it seems fair to infer that they give a reasonably accurate
idea of the general food of the species. It has been deemed best to
treat the two species together, since they prove to be very much alike
in diet. The greatest difference is that the yellow-billed cuckoo eats
more beetles (Coleoptera) and fewer bugs (Hemiptera). The seasonal
variation in diet is much less than in most birds. Of the 155 stomachs
of both species examined, only one contained any vegetable food,
and this only two berries of the wild rough-leaved cornel (Cornus
asperifolia). One other stomach contained a bit of rubbish, probably
taken accidentally with some insect. Drs. C. Wart Merriam and A. K.
Fisher have seen the yellow-billed species feeding on mulberries in
Westchester County, N. Y.,! and Dr. I. II. Warren found ‘berries’ in
‘Annual Report, U.S. Dept, Agriculture for 1890, p. 285, 1891.
INSECT FOOD OF CUCKOOS. 9
one of the nine stomachs examined by him.' These observations show
that cuckoos do at times eat fruit, but the results of our investigation
indicate that it is not their usual habit.
The insect food of cuckoos consists of beetles, grasshoppers, cicadas,
bugs, ants, wasps, flies, caterpillars, and spiders, of which grasshoppers
and caterpillars constitute more than three-fourths. The great majority
of the insects found in the stomachs were harmful kinds. Caterpillars,
katydids, and tree crickets are exactly the prey that cuckoos might
be expected to secure from their peculiar method of hunting in foliage,
while the large numbers of grasshoppers eaten furnish additional proof
of the fact so often illustrated that birds are particularly fond of grass-
hoppers, and that species not naturally ground feeders become so
during the grasshopper season.
It is a matter of common observation that cuckoos feed Jargely on
caterpillars, and stoinach investigations not only confirm this but show
that unlike most other birds they eat freely of hairy and bristly species.
Nearly half of the cuckoo’s food was found to be caterpillars. An
attempt was made to obtain an approximate idea of the actual number
in the stomachs by counting the heads and jaws, but in many cases
this was nearly impossible, as many of the insects were very young and
the jaws consequently minute. The result of this estimate, however,
showed that no less than 2,771 caterpillars were contained in 129
stomachs, or an average of more than 21 in each. If the whole num-
ber of stomachs (155) is considered, the average is reduced to 18, and
it is absolutely certain that this is much below the actual number.
During May and June, when tent caterpillars are defoliating the fruit
trees, these insects constitute half of the cuckoo’s food. When cuckoos
visit the nests of the tent caterpillars they apparently eat as many of
the occupants as possible. Most of the stomachs that contained the
larve at all were filled with them, some having more than 100 indi-
viduals. Mr. Otto Lugger, formerly of the Department of Agricul-
ture, examined one stomach which was so full that he concluded that
the bird had devoured the whole colony, as there were several hun-
dreds of these hairy caterpillars.
Perhaps the most curious insects found in the cuckoo stomachs were
the larvie of the Io moth. These caterpillars are thickly covered
along the back and sides with spines growing from tubercles, which
are not only very sharp but poisonous, and sting the hand quite
severely when carelessly touched. Nevertheless, they were found in
five stomachs, one of which contained seven, another three, and the
others one each.
It is noticeable that the larve of moths, particularly hawk-moths
(Sphingide), are eaten much oftener than those of butterflies. Whether
this comes from preference and selection on the part of the bird or
from the greater abundance and more conspicuous habits of the insects
1 Birds of Pennsylvania, 2d ed., p. 161, 1890.
10 cUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
still remains to be determined. As to the kinds of caterpillars eaten,
it may be said that the hairy and spiny species far outnumber the
smooth, but this may be due either to the greater abundance of the
hairy ones or to the bird’s preference.
This diet of hairy caterpillars has a curious effect upon the birds’
stomachs. A cuckoo’s stomach, unlike that of seed-eating species, has
only a thin muscular coat on the outside, and the usual smooth lining
is almost entirely devoid of rug or folds so characteristic of the
stomachs of many birds. This inver layer is almost always found
pierced by at least a few caterpillar hairs; often by so many as to be
completely furred and the membrane itself almost entirely concealed.
Incidentally this hairy lining affords an excellent means of determining
the motion of the food during digestion. Ifa stomach is divided in the
plane of its two greater diameters the hairs on each half will be found
brushed around a center like the nap on the top of a silk hat, indicating
that the whole mass of food revolves in this plane. It may also be
noticed that the skins of caterpillars taken from the stomachs of birds
are always twisted like a cord or rope, and often require considerable
untwi-~ting before their characters can be determined.
In a review of the food of cuckoos the most striking point is the
great number of caterpillars or lepidopterous larvie which enter into
the year’s diet. These insects are crude feeders, eating immense quan-
tities of vegetable tissue, and are usually so distended with it that the
amount of real nutrition in any one of them must be small. In fact,
stomachs of birds that have eaten largely of caterpillars always show
a quantity of this finely cut vegetable matter derived froin,the insects’
stomachs. .\s digestion in birds is rapid it would seem necessary to
fill the stomach several times a day with such quickly digested and
slightly nutritious food as this, while the number of caterpillars found
in a stomach at any one time probably represents but a small portion
of the actual daily consumption. From these considerations it appears
that cuckoos must eat an enormous number of laryie in the course of a
season. If the contents of all the stomachs examined are regarded as
so many daily meals of the same bird, then the result indicates that
the bird has eaten 2,771 caterpillars in 155 consecutive days, at the
rate of only one meal each day, and some days not eating any. Now,
155 days is about the length of time that euckoos remain in their
summer range; moreover, as indicated above, one cuckoo must eat sev-
eral meals a day, so this number (2,771) probably falls far short of
the actual number of caterpillars devoured by each cuckoo during the
season.
In view of such considerations it seems hardly possible to overesti-
mate the value of the cuckoo’s work. All caterpillars are harmful,
many of them are pests, and any of them are likely to become so. The
common tent caterpillar formerly fed upon the wild cherry, but has
now turned its attention principally to apple trees, sometimes com-
GENERAL INSECT FOOD OF CUCKOOS. 11
pletely defoliating them. What this caterpillar has done, many others
may do. In the cuckoos we probably have one of nature’s most effi-
cient checks on the increase of these harmful species. It is said that
hairy caterpillars are protected by their coats from the attacks of
the ichneumon flies; if this be true, the work of the cuckoos in
destroying the hairy species is complementary to that of the ichneu-
mons, which help to destroy the smooth-coated caterpillars. Consider-
ing the number of grasshoppers, locusts, and other insects that cuckoos
eat in addition to caterpillars, it is evident that from an economic point
of view these birds are two of our most valuable species, and as they
have not been convicted of doing any harm, they should be protected
and encouraged in every possible way.
Besides insects proper, a number of spiders were found in the
stomachs examined, most of them the long-legged kinds commonly
known as ‘daddy longlegs’ or harvestmen (Phalangidw). One
stomach contained seven, the mass of tangled legs looking like a bunch
of coarse hair. When we consider the disgusting odor of these spiders,
their long legs, and the fact that their bodies have the texture of sand-
paper, we are again forcibly reminded that tastes differ. But the most
remarkable thing which the cuckoos had eaten was a small tree frog
(Hyla) which had been swallowed whole!
In view of Audubon’s accusation that the yellow-billed cuckoo sucks
the eggs of other birds, it may be said that eggshells were found in
several stomachs taken in July and August, but only in very small
quantities—no more than found in the stomachs of nearly every species
that has been examined. It is probable that these were merely empty
shells eaten for the sake of the lime they contained. It may be added
that one stomach disclosed a snail shell, which was probably taken for
the same purpose. A number of stomachs contained each from one to
three bits of gravel, but why the stones were swallowed was not appar-
ent. Cuckoos do not eat hard seeds, and even if they did their stomachs
are not muscular enough to act as a mill for grinding, as are those of
gallinaceous and friugilline birds.
GENERAL INSECT FOOD OF CUCKOOS.
BEETLES.
The beetles found in the stomachs belong to several families, no one of
which forms any important percentage of the total food. The stomach
taken in Texas in January contained 17 percent of beetles belonging
to five different families, all harmful. Beetles constitute 14 percent of
the food in May, but later in the season decrease, and after July practi-
eally disappear. The useful Carabidw are rarely eaten, which is easily
explained by the fact that they live on the ground, while the cuckoos
feed mainly in trees. One bird, however, had eaten a specimen of Calo-
soma scrutator, one of the largest and most predatory of these beetles,
12. GUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
which, it may be added, is one of the most disgusting in odor. This
was probably the most useful insect that the birds had eaten. “Scara-
beide were somewhat more numerous than other beetles. The most
noticeable of these was the goldsmith beetle (Cotalpa lanigera), which
was found in 3 instances—6 specimens in one stomach and 3 in each
of the others. Two stomachs contained each 2 specimens of the
Colorado potato beetle (Doryphora 10-lineata), Elateride, Buprestida,
Tenebrionide, Cerambycide, Lampyrida, and a few Rhynchophora, or
snout beetles, were also found. Among the latter was 1 specimen of
the rice weevil (Calandra oryze). Altogether beetles constitute a little
more than 6 percent of the year’s food.
BUGS (HEMIPTERA).
Hemiptera, or bugs, are represented by cicadas, pentatomids, and a
few others. The great bulk is made up of cicadas, or dog-day harvest.
flies, which seem to be a favorite article of food, as no less than 5 were
found in one stomach and 4 in another. Stink-bugs (Pentatomide)
were found in quite a number of stomachs, but not in large quantities.
A few assassin bugs (Ieduviider) were also detected. No Hemiptera
were contained in the stomachs collected in January, but in the May
stomachs they amount to 12 percent, and do not vary much until
after August, when they begin to disappear. They amount to about
64 percent of the food of the year.
GRASSHOPPERS (ORTHOPTERA).
The Orthoptera eaten by the cuckoos consist of common grass-
hoppers, katydids, and tree crickets. The common grasshoppers are
evidently favorites, as is the case with so many other birds. Several
stomachs contained from 10 to 20 of these insects—a good meal for so
small a bird. Katydids and their eggs were found in many stomachs,
and often several individuals in a single stomach, The snowy tree
cricket (Gcanthus nircus) is another insect that would seem naturally
to fall in their way, and which their stomachs prove that they often
eat. Orthoptera collectively were found in 86 of the 155 stomachs
examined, and constitute about 30 percent of the year’s food. Begin-
ning with about 3 percent in May, they increase to over 43 percent in
July, and do not fall much below this point during the remainder of
the year.
CATERPILLARS.
Nearly half of the yearly food (48.5 percent) consists of caterpillars,
which were found in 129, ov 83 percent, of the 155 stomachs examined.
The stomach taken in January contained 15 percent; in May the per-
centage rose to 60; in July and August it fell off a little to make room
for grasshoppers, and in September reached the maximum of 75.
One of the most conspicuous and interesting of these larve is the
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS EATEN BY CUCKOOS. 13
common tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa americana), which was recognized
in 17 stomachs, and was almost certainly contained in many more,
though the remains were too fragmentary for positive identification.
When it is considered that this species can be obtained only during
May and June and that only 50 stomachs were collected in these
months, it will be seen that more than one-third of all the birds that
could get these insects had eaten them. Though the remains in many
stomachs could not be identified with certainty, there is no reasonable
doubt that these caterpillars constitute at least half of all the food
. during this period.
Another caterpillar which appears very frequently in the cuckoo’s
diet is the destructive fall web-worm (Hyphantria cunea). In one
stomach 217 heads of this insect were counted, and the fragments of
others indicated that 250 would be nearer the correct number. The
larve of the white-marked tussock moth (Orgyia leucostigma) are also
frequently eaten. One stomach contained remains of a number of
army worms (Leucania unipuncta), but as these caterpillars feed upon
grass, grain, and other plants that grow in the open, they do not nat-
urally fall in the way of cuckoos. It is probable that army worms
would be more extensively eaten if the fields infested with them were
in the immediate vicinity of woods. Besides eating caterpillars of
ordinary size, cuckoos often indulge in a meal of the larve of the larger
moths and hawk moths. Of the latter, Protoparce carolina and Deilephila
lineata were found in several stomachs. In fact, sphingid larvee appear
to be favorites, and make up a large proportion of the hairless cater-
pillars eaten. Giant silkworms were represented by one larva of Telea
polyphemus, the Io moth (Hyperchiria io) by 13 larve, and royal moths
by 1 of Hacles imperialis, each as large as a man’s finger. Only 3
butterfly larve were identified, one the black spiny larva of Vanessa
antiopa, another the well-known Limenitis disippus, the third the larva
of askipper, Hudamus tityrus. While cuckoos eat many larve of Lepi-
doptera, remains of the adult insects were found only once. In this
case the stomach contained the heads of several small moths of the
Arctiide, a family whose larve are hairy.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTS.
A little more than 5 percent of the food is made up of miscellaneous
insects, consisting of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and a few others. Tipu-
lids, or crane flies, constitute the greater part of the Diptera; they are
found in quite a number of stomachs, but do not amount to much in
bulk. Among the Hymenoptera, the most interesting, as well as those
most frequently found, are larve of sawflies (Tenthredinide). These so
closely resemble caterpillars that entomologists call them ‘false cater-
pillars’; and it seems probable that this resemblance explains why the
cuckoo eats them. They do not, however, appear distasteful, for one
bird had eaten over 60. Larve of our largest species of sawfly (Cimbex
14 cCUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
americana) were found in several stomachs. Ants, too, are frequently
eaten; probably captured when crawling over leaves or branches—
possibly when tending their dairies of plant lice. One stomach from
western Pennsylvania, taken on June 2, contained, among other insects,
2 curious heads of ants, which were identified by Mr. Pergande, of the
Division of Entomology, as belonging to the genus Cryptocarus. This
genus is not known from the United States, but is abundant in Mexico
and the West Indies. The bird was probably a late migrant. <A few
other Hymenoptera were found, among them a specimen of that curious
long-bodied creature, Pelecinus polyturator. Inthe stomachs examined
a few dragon flies were detected, but not enough to constitute a per-
ceptible percentage. There were also some spiders, mainly Phalangide.
As a matter of interest to the entomologist, as well as the orni-
thologist, a list of insects identified in the cuckoos’ stomachs is
appended : ;
INSECTS IDENTIFIED IN THE STOMACHS OF CUCKOOS.
Coleoptera : Lepidoptera:
Calosoma scrutator. Anisota senatoria.
Lachnosterna sp. Anisota virginiensis.
Osmoderma sp. Alypia octomaculata.
Cotalpa lanigera. Acronycta americana.
Gnorimus maculosus. Hyperchiria io.
Euphoria melancholica. Eacles imperialis.
Dichelonycha sp. Clisiocampa americana,
Lucanus sp. Cerura sp.
Sandalus petrophya. Datana ministra.
Lina scripta.
Disonycha abbreviata.
Chrysomela scalaris.
Doryphora 10-lineata.
Romaleum atomarium.
Prionus sp.
Leptura sp.
Buprestis sp.
Chauliognathus sp,
Phytonomus nigrirostris.
Tyloderma wreum.
Pissodes sp.
Calandra oryziv.
Cratoparis lunatius.
Hemiptera:
Brochymena sp.
Euschistus sp.
Nezara hilaris,
Cicada pruinosa.
Cicada tibicen,
Orthoptera:
(Edipoda sp.
Pezotettix sp.
Ceuthophilus sp.
(Ecanthus niveus.
Datana contracta.
Dryocampa rubicunda.
Deilephila lineata.
Eudryas unio.
Edema albifrons.,
Heterocampa manteo.
Hyphantria cunea.
Leucania unipuncta.
Nadata gibbosa.
Notodonta sp.
Orgyia leucostigma,
Psychomorpha epimenis.
Smerinthus sp.
Protoparce carolina,
Spilosoma virginica,
Telea polyphemus.
Endanius tityrus.
Vanessa antiopa.
Limenitis disippus.
Iymenoptera :
Pelecinus polyturator.
Lophyrus sp.
Cimbex americana,
Camponotus sp.
Cryptocarus sp,
THE FOOD OF SHRIKES.
By SYLvester D. Jupp, Ph. D.
HABITS OF SHRIKES.
Two species of shrikes inhabit North America. One, the loggerhead
shrike (Lanius ludovicianus et subspec.), is a permanent resident in the
United States; the other, the butcherbird (Lanius borealis), visits us
from the north in winter. Either might be mistaken for a mocking bird,
but upon close inspection is seen to have the hooked beak of a hawk;
instead of possessing talons, however, it has weak and slender feet,
thus combining characters of a bird of prey with those of a song bird.
During cold weather the shrike in wait for prey takes his stand on
some high perch that commands a wide view. In this position he
watches, ready to pounce on the first bird that twitters in the briers,
or mouse that rustles in the grass. When the quarry has been secured,
it is carried to a sharp twig or thorn and spitted, and then the hunter,
ever eager to satisfy lis desire for the chase, goes off to the hedgerows
to search for more game. In Germany it is said that a closely allied
species daily kills and impales nine victims, from which belief came the
common name ‘ Neuntidter’ or Ninekiller. It is well known that the
shrike kills and hangs up in his shambles more than he can utilize. But
this apparently wanton slaughter may often be the salvation of many a
shrike whose hunt over snow-covered fields has yielded no return.
This habit of impaling its prey is well described by Mr. Benjamin
Mortimer who, in writing from Orange, Fla., says:
In March, 1889, two instances of the loggerhead shrike’s killing smaller birds
came under my notice. In both cases the victim was a grasshopper sparrow,
although birds of this species were few and scattered at that time, while the
savanna sparrow was very abundant. The sparrows were impaled by the neck upon
orange thorns, and there were no wounds on any other part of the body. * * =
This bird (the shrike) impales its prey not only when it wishes to preserve it, but
also when it intends to devour it immediately, and the long slivers on fresh pine
stumps are commonly selected for the purpose wherever they can be found. The
bird flies to a stump with its victim, usually a beetle, and forces it upon a sliver,
just behind the thorax, thus having a convenient place to stand and a convenient
fork to hold the morsel while he breaks open the hard shell and eats the softer parts.
The same stump is resorted to many times by the same bird, so that it is common to
find quantities of the legs and wing cases of beetles about these curious dining
tables, 15
16 cCUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
The habit of killing small animals and hanging up their bodies has
given the shrike the appropriate generic name Lanius, which means
‘butcher.’ The name ‘Butcherbird’ is more properly applied to the
larger northern bird, while to the smaller and more southerly species
the title ‘ Loggerhead’ shrike is given.
Difterent diets affect in time the structure of an animal. Special
parts are developed for procuring and digesting food. But the réle
that food habits play in the production of such variations has not yet
been fully worked out. All structures are necessarily developed and
maintained in direct relation to function. Shrikes have special struc-
tures suited to their peculiar feeding habits. So long as the northern
shrike or butcherbird is restricted to an animal diet, because of the
relative scarcity of insects at the North during most of the year, it
must be more of a meat eater than its southern cousin, the loggerhead.
The struggle for existence in the North is so keen that the butcher-
bird, during cold weather, must hold itself in readiness to fly at the
first bird or mouse that is sighted.
The food habits of the shrikes, so far as determined from the exami-
nation of 155 stomachs, collected during every mouth of the year, from
Saskatchewan to Florida and from the Atlantic to the Pacitic, are very
similar to those of the sparrow hawk; that is to say, the food con-
sists of mice, small birds, and insects, the latter mainly grasshoppers.
Both birds are much less insectivorous in cold than in warm weather—
the oncoming of winter and consequent increasing scarcity of insects
necessitating a change in food.
In discussing the insectivorous habits of the shrike, it is hardly nec-
essary to state that the destruction of grasshoppers is a great service
to the farmer. The shrike also devours a large number of beetles, and
often eats caterpillars, wasps, and spiders. Since it takes practically
no vegetable food, it can not injure crops, unless indirectly, by killing
birds and insects that prey upon insect pests. The birds selected,
however, are for the most part seed eaters and consequently less valu-
able than the insectivorous kinds; and if it be granted that the harm
done by the destruction of one of these birds is counterbalanced by
the killing of one mouse, then it follows that the harm done by the
shrike in killing birds is completely offset. Furthermore, the attacks
of the shrike are often directed against the English sparrow, now so
obnoxious in many parts of the United States. Concerning the insect
food, it may be safely stated that the percentage of noxious grass-
hoppers is four times as great as that of the useful ground beetles.
In considering the relation of the shrikes to agriculture, it must be
remembered that one inhabits a fertile country where cultivation yields
heavy crops, while the other lives in a northern region where agricul-
ture amounts to very little. Therefore, the good or harm done by the
northern butcherbird must be mainly accomplished when it migrates
south into the United States. From the present limited investigation, it
NORTHERN SHRIKE OR BUTCHERBIRD. 17
appears that the beneficial qualities of both shrikes outweigh the injuri-
ous. Furthermore, it is probable that when it is possible to study the
summer food habits of the butcherbird, this species, like its southern
relative, the loggerhead, will be found to be a destroyer of quantities
of grasshoppers and other noxious insects.
NORTHERN SHRIKE OR BUTCHERBIRD.
The northern shrike is a bird of the Hudsonian zone, breeding from
Labrador to Alaska, and visiting the United States in winter only,
when its food supply fails at the North. During its winter sojourn it
renders a threefold service by killing grasshoppers, English sparrows,
and mice. The birds and mice together amount to 60 percent, and
insects to 40 percent, of the food from October to April. Grass-
hoppers constitute one-fourth of the food, and are equal to twice the
combined amounts of beetles and caterpillars.
Apparently no mineral or vegetable matter is intentionally swallowed.
Indeed, its exclusively animal diet makes it, practically, a bird of prey,
and therefore we must consider what animals it destroys.
BIRDS EATEN BY THE BUTCHERBIRD.
The Chippewa Indians call this shrike ‘big cannibal bird,’ and sev-
eral instances of cannibalism are recorded. In vne case a hungry
butcherbird pounced upon and carried off his companiou, which had
been shot and laid on the top of a log cabin. The butcherbird, when
impelled by extreme hunger, becomes very bold, and has been known
to enter a room and decapitate a caged canary.
In the stomachs of the 67 butcherbirds examined 28 species of seed-
eating birds were found. Of these 3 were tree sparrows, 5 juncos, and
7 English sparrows; the others could not be named with certainty.
The tree sparrows and juncos were found in shrikes that had been
taken in rural districts. On the other hand, English sparrows were
found only in stomachs of birds that had been collected in cities.
In speaking of the enemies of the English sparrow, Prof. W. B.
Barrows says:
Probably the most useful bird in this respect is the northern shrike (Lantus bore-
alis), which visits most of our northern cities in winter and feeds freely on the
sparrow. At one time this shrike became so abundant on the Common and public
parks in Boston that it threatened to destroy all the sparrows, but the shortsighted
authorities kept a man busy shooting the shrikes, until several dozen had been
killed, and the useless sparrows were considered safe.
It is to be hoped that in other cities this enemy of the sparrow will
be protected instead of persecuted. If there were 6 butcherbirds in
each of 20 New England cities, and each butcherbird killed 1 sparrow
aday for the three winter months, the result would be a removal of
10,800 sparrows. Since 2 sparrows could raise under favorable condi-
tions four broods of 5 each, the increase would be tenfold, so that those
3225—No. 9——2
18 cUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
destroyed by the butcherbirds, if allowed to live, would have amounted
at the end of the first year to 118,800, and at the end of the second year
to 1,306,800 individuals. The shrike is at work every winter in the
cities of the northern tier of States, killing the sparrows which tend to
increase until they become so abundant that more are obliged to resort
to the country for food. In a number of instances where English spar-
rows had been devoured, their stomachs, containing seeds and gravel,
were found within the butcherbirds’ stomachs. A golden-crowned
kinglet’s stomach also was detected, filled with fragments of a beetle
and scores of tiny gnats. Mr. Frank M. Drew, in an article entitled
‘Field Notes on the Birds of San Juan County, Colorado’ (Bull. Nutt.
Ornith. Club, vol. 6, p. 89), says that this sbrike lives by foraging on
little troops of titmice. Dr. G.S. Agersborg, of South Dakota, states
(The Auk, vol. 7, p. 279) that it seems to follow the wake of the tree
sparrows (Spizella monticola), and leaves in the spring at the same time
they do. Prof. F. E. L. Beal while at Ames, Iowa, noted the butcher-
bird attacking birds only once, although he had time and again recorded
their killing mice. In this exceptional case the victim was a downy
woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) which the shrike had hung in a crotch
while devouring the brains. The most remarkable account of the
butcherbird’s not molesting birds also comes from Professor Beal at
the same station. A shrike was perched on a telegraph wire above
a rank weed patch which was all a-twitter with hundreds of native
sparrows. Every now and then the shrike would leave the wire to
scour the prairie, apparently hunting for mice, and then return to his
perch. He paid no attention to the sparrows, and they showed no
signs of apprehension.
Following is a list of birds that the butcherbird has been known to
kill:
Chickadee (Larus atricapillus),!
Bush tit (Psaltriparus).
English sparrow (Passer domesticus).:
Tree sparrow (Spizella monticola).?
Snowflake (Plectrophenax nivalis),
Downy woodpecker (Dry yotates pubescens).
Vireo (Virco sp.).
Junco (Junco hyematis).?
Kinglet (Regulus satrapa).?
Field sparrow (Spizella pusilla).
Goldfinch (Spinus tristis).2
Siskin (Spinus pinus).?
Yellow-rumped warbler (Dendroica coronala).?
Mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura).
Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis),
Longspur (Calearius).
Shore lark LEO: ‘
“Identitied in the laboratory.
'Dr. J. Dwight, jr.
* Ornithologist and Oologist.
FOOD OF THE BUTCHERBIRD. 19
MAMMALS EATEN BY THE BUTCHERBIRD.
The stomach of a shrike that has recently eaten a mouse is found to
be filled with a large ball of fur, with bones in the center. It is impos-
sible for these large masses to pass through the small intestine, there-
fore they are expelled through the mouth. A number of birds, includ-
ing the European shrike (Lanius excubitor), are known to disgorge
pellets after the manner of birds of prey.
Mice were found in one-third of the stomachs examined, constituting
one-fourth of the food, and were eaten most frequently in March. Of
these mice 15 were identified as follows: 1 white-footed mouse (Pero-
myscus), 1 harvest mouse (Reithrodontomys), and 8 meadow mice
(Microtus). This last mouse is the one that oftenest falls a victim to
hawks and owls. Mr. William Brewster, of Cambridge, Mass., states
in The Auk (Vol. XI, p. 329) that he saw a shrike seize a large meadow
mouse ‘by the back, drag it across the snow, and then dropit. The
mouse, instead of trying to escape, sprang at the shrike and drove it
back several feet. Finally the bird, by several well-aimed passes, suc-
ceeded in intimidating the mouse, and then, as the latter turned to run
away, caught it by the neck and worried it to death, as a terrier would
arat. The mouse was afterwards borne off in the shrike’s claws and
fixed in the fork of a tree. Meadow mice, besides consuming grass and
grain, also girdle fruit trees, and the house mouse, in addition to wast-
ing corn in the granary, wantonly destroys grain standing in the shock.
Dr. E. A. Mearus, United States Army, states in a letter that shrikes
in Minnesota during March live exclusively upon meadow mice (Micro-
tus), and Mr. W. L. Scott (The Auk, Vol. I, p. 158) cites an instance
in which a butcherbird was caught in the act of giving chase to a
chipmunk (Tamias striatus).
Carrion is sometimes eaten. Prof. F. E. L. Beal, while at Ames, Iowa,
in January, 1880, saw a butcherbird fly over the brown frozen prairie
to a carcass of a cow, where it lit on one of the ribs and greedily tore
off shreds of the flesh.
INSECTS EATEN BY THE BUTCHERBIRD.
Active insects are much more liable than sluggish ones to fall victims
to the butcherbird, because objects which at rest can not be discrim-
inated are instantly seen when moving. Thus it happens that flying
grasshoppers and running beetles form a large proportion of the food
of this bird. Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), which are eaten
during every month from October to April, form 24 percent of the total
volume of food, and for October and November together these insect
pests form more than half of the food. Compared with Orthoptera, the
beetles (Coleoptera) eaten are of minor importance, amouuting to only
6 percent of the food. More than half these beetles belong to the
family Carabide, the members of which prey upon insect pests. Cater-
20 CUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
pillars were contained in one-fifth of the stomachs examined, and during
the months of January and February amount to 8 percent of the vol-
ume of the stomach contents. Dr. A. K. Fisher collected in March
two stomachs that were full of caterpillars. Even the bristly Isabella
caterpillar is eaten, an object apparently as edible as a chestnut bur.
Cutworms were found in several instances, but moths were seldom met
with. Ants, wasps, flies, and thousand legs are sometimes eaten, and
spiders constitute 3 percent of the food; but bugs (Hemiptera) were not
detected during our laboratory investigations, though a cicada sup-
posed to have been impaled by a shrike was found by Mrs. Musick, at
Mount Carmel, Mo.
Important as is the study of the food of nestlings, it must, for
lack of material, rest on the work of other writers. Audubon states
that caterpillars, other insects and spiders, together with small fruits,
form the first food of young butcherbirds. It seems odd that a bird
which eats no fruit itself should feed its young on berries. The log-
gerhead shrike, as far as my investigation shows, neither takes vege-
table food nor gives it to its young; and furthermore, our fruit-eating
birds, so far as known, never begin by feeding their young on fruit.
The present investigation shows that beneficial birds torm less than
one-fourth of the food of the butcherbird. It also shows that the
butcherbird, in addition to being an enemy of mice, is a potent check
on the English sparrow, and on several insect pests. One-fourth of
its food is mice; another fourth grasshoppers; a third fourth consists
of native sparrows and predaceous beetles and spiders, while the
remainder is made up of English sparrows and species of insects, most
of which are noxious.
THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE.
The geographic races of the loggerhead shrike have almost identi-
cal habits, and consequently will be considered together. During
the breeding season the loggerhead, the southern representative of the
butcherbird, inhabits the United States, northern Mexico, and the
southern part of the interior of Canada. It is smaller and differs in
minor details of color: the lower mandible is black, while that of the
butcherbird is yellowish; aud the black bars on the side of the head
meet across the forehead, but fail to do so in the butcherbird. In fall
the loggerheads wander southward, but in spring they return to their
breeding grounds and nest in thorny shrubs.
BIRDS EATEN BY THE LOGGERHLEAD,
Only 7 birds were found in the 88 loggerhead stomachs examined.
One of these was an English Sparrow, another a tree sparrow, and
most of the others, which were not specifically identified, were also
seed-eating birds,
VERTEBRATES EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. 21
Following is a list of birds reported to have been killed by the
loggerhead:
English sparrow (Passer domesticus).
Tree sparrow (Spizella monticola).
Yellow-winged sparrow (4Ammodramus savannarum passerinus).
Song sparrow (Melospiza fasciata).
Western chipping sparrow (Spizella socialis arizone).!
White-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis).”
Young chicken.3
Canary (Serinus canarius).4
Chimney Swift (Chetura pelagica).+
Ground dove (Columbigallina passerina terrestris).
Bell’s vireo (Vireo belli).
Snow bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis).°
Blue-gray gnatcatcher (Polioptila cerulea).!
MAMMALS EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD.
From the laboratory investigation there is no evidence to show that
shrews are eaten, but Mr. Robert Ridgway has seen shrews that had
been impaled by the loggerhead. Mice are often found in stomachs of
birds killed in winter, at which season they form 50 percent, and for the
whole year 16 percent, of the food. The pretty white-footed mice are
favorites. Bones, skin, and two tails of this mouse were taken from
one stomach. The loggerhead is a good mouser during cold weather,
but owing to its weaker bill is not so successful as the butcherbird in
its battles with the large meadow mice.
Cases have been recorded where loggerheads ate carrion. Mr.
William Lloyd, in an article entitled ‘Birds of Tom Green and Concho
counties, Texas’ (The Auk, Vol. IV, 1887, p. 295), states that in the
severe January of 1884 he found a loggerhead shrike so gorged from
feeding on a dead sheep that it could not fly.
OTHER VERTEBRATES EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD,
Lizards were found in 6 of the 9 stomachs collected south of the lat-
itude of Nashville, Tenn. One of the lizards was the so-called chame-
leon (Anolis principalis). Snakes, fish, and frogs are occasionally eaten.
On this subject Mr. H. G. Gedney writes: * * * “I have often seen
‘them (loggerheads) return to lizards and tree toads which they had
impaled * * *, I saw a loggerhead attack a snake of the genus Lepto-
phis, nearly two feet long, and after a sharp contest succeed in dis-
patching it.” It is not at all uncommon for loggerhead shrikes to kill
snakes. In The Osprey for April, 1897, is a picture of an impaled
garter snake (Hutenia sirtalis) beside a loggerhead’s nest, and several
observers have told me that they attack snakes and impale their
bodies. Prof. W. G. Johnson, of the Maryland Agricultural College,
1 William Lloyd. 3 Florida Dispatch. 5W. H. Collins.
2 William Palmer. 4 Robert Ridgway.
22 GUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
has observed the loggerhead impale snakes on a barbed-wire fence.
At times loggerheads feed upon fish. The stomach of a bird killed in
Utah on a cold winter’s day contained nothing but minnow’s bones;
and Bachman speaks of the shrike’s impaling fish that have been left
by fishermen.
INSECTS EATEN BY THE LOGGERHEAD.
The larger part of the insect food of this shrike consists of Orthoptera
(grasshoppers and crickets), and the remainder is principally beetles.
In summer, when grasshoppers are abundant, the loggerhead does not
seem to attack birds. The fact that in time of plenty more insects are
killed and impaled than can be utilized indicates that the percentage
of these pests destroyed is much greater than the laboratory examina-
tions show. The same statement would not hold good in the case of
the destruction of birds, because during cold weather when birds are
killed there is a scarcity of food, and all the spoils of the chase are
probably utilized. Grasshoppers and crickets were found in three-
fourths of the stomachs examined, and 14 of the 88 shrikes had fed
exclusively upon these pests. Most of the Orthoptera eaten are grass-
hoppers, though some crickets are taken. Most of the grasshoppers
found in stomach contents are flying species, among which have been
noted the dust-colored Dissosteira carolina which, when rising from the
road, shows beautiful yellow underwings, and the red-legged grass-
hopper (Melanoplus femur-rubrum) which is so conspicuous in hay fields.
The pellucid grasshopper (Camnula atrox), which is somewhat migra-
tory, is frequently captured, and also an ugly grasshopper (Hippiscus).
In Arizona Dr. Horn has seen loggerheads catch grasshoppers and
impale them on cactus spines. One of the largest insects devoured by
this bird is a sand cricket, the so-called Idaho devil. The mole cricket,
likewise a large insect, is attacked and eaten by the shrikes of the
southeastern United States. The fact that they take these enormous
insects shows that whatever food becomes available in any locality is
generally utilized. :
Beetles and their larvis are found in about one-fourth of the
stomachs, and constitute 20 per cent of the bulk of the food. Most of
the beetles are eaten in spring before grasshoppers become abundant.
Half the beetles and their larvie destroyed are useful carnivorous
species that prey upon insect pests. Some of the largest of these
beneficial beetles have been found stuck upon the splinters of the
Stump of a felled tree. There were taken from one loggerhead’s
stomach 112 jaws of the larvie of a large predaceous beetle, and from
another stomach the remains of the useful tiger beetle. It is probable
that the killing of useful beetles is more detrimental to agricultural
interests than the destruction of birds. Although half the beetles
eaten are beneficial, most of the others are injurious. Among this
latter class may be mentioned large, bright-colored, wood-boring bee-
INSECTS IMPALED BY THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE. 23
tles (Buprestide), with the adult beetles of wire worms, weevils, and
some allies of the May beetle. There are also eaten some of the harm-
less species closely related to this last group of beetles, as for instance
the little dung beetles (Aphodius) and the large green-and-gold tumble-
bug (Phanceus carnifex). Darkling (Tenebrionide) aud carrion beetles
(Stlphide) are frequently caught, and the latter insects have been found
stuck upon a barbed-wire fence.
The insect food of the loggerhead, like that of the butcherbird
includes about 11 percent of caterpillars, wasps, and spiders. In the
stomach of one bird was the abdomen of a large wasp with its sting
stik attached. That the loggerhead is given to catching large insects
is shown by the fact that one stomach was distended with a large grass-
hopper (Schistocerca americana), another contained a mole cricket, and
a third was filled with an enormous saw fly (Urocerus). This last wasp-
like insect does much damage by puncturing trees, thus making an
opening for wood-boring insects.
Loggerheads relish caterpillars; they destroy canker worms (Geome-
tride), cut worms (Noctuide), aud even bristly caterpillars (Arctiidae) ;
but as far as this investigation goes they have not been known to take
adult Lepidoptera, dlthough Bachman says he has seen them seize but-
terflies and moths on the wing. To complete the items of the inverte-
brate food there should be added crane flies, ants, dragon flies, May
flies, thousand-legs, snails, and cray fish. These, though occasionally
eaten, never form any significant percentage of the food.
To this account of the loggerhead shrike are added the following field
notes kindly written for this paper by Mr. E. A. Schwarz, of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture:
Insects impaled by Lanius ludovicianus excubitorides in southwestern Texas.
From April 24, 1896, the date of my arrival at San Diego, Duval County, Tex., up
to May 21, I do not remember having seen any impaled insects. During this time
the weather was extremely dry, but quite a number of large-sized insects abounded.
On May 21 a copious rainfall occurred and brought out myriads of specimens of the
Scarabeid genus Canthon (tumble bugs). These seem to be greatly relished by the
shrikes, and large numbers of specimens could now be seen impaled every day.
Other species of impaled insects observed at the time were Pasimachus, Dicwlus, and
a single Hymenopter (Glis). No impaled grasshoppers were seen at this season.
The shrubs more especially selected by the birds are Celtis pallida and Prosopis
juliflora, dead shrubs being preferred to living ones.
However, the number of impaled insects in early summer is small 1n comparison
with that seen toward the end of October. Impaled grasshoppers abound now, but
there 1s no lack of other terrestrial insects, especially Carabide. Some soft-bodied
insects are also among them, notably various terrestrial spiders and larve of Cara-
bidous Coleoptera. Finally, there are numerous lizards and horned toads. It was
also then noticed for the first time thatthe barbs of wire fences are used for impaling
insects.
Most of the impaled specimens are never eaten by the birds, and remain for many
weeks on the thorns. It would seem that the bird has acquired the habit of
impaling insects without having the intention of eating them.
24 GCUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
FOOD OF NESTLING LOGGERHEAD SHRIKES.
A female parent and 6 half-grown young were collected for the pur-
pose of ascertaining whether, as is commonly believed, young shrikes
are fed upon song birds. Three-fourths of the contents of each of
these stomachs were insects, mainly grasshoppers. Parts of a meadow
mouse had been fed to 2 of the nestlings. Mr. F. H. King, who has
made extended studies on the food of birds, cites an instance of a
shrike of this species carrying a warbler to its young, but Mr. Ernest
Seton Thompson, who has recently examined the stomachs of 4 fledg-
lings, found no birds, but many beetles, grasshoppers, and_ bristly
caterpillars. The caterpillars belonged to the family Arctiide, and
were covered with spines. It is very important that the few birds
which will eat such caterpillars should be rigorously protected.
SUMMARY.
The food of the butcherbird and loggerhead, as shown by 155 stom-
achs collected during every month in the year, and in an area extend-
ing from California to the Atlantic coast, and from Saskatchewan to
Florida, consists of invertebrates (mainly grasshoppers), birds, and
mice. During the colder half of the year the butcherbird eats birds
and mice to the extent of 60 percent and ekes out the rest of its food
with insects. In the loggerhead’s food birds and mice amount to only
24 percent. It will readily be seen from the table on page 26 that the
loggerhead’s beneficial qualities outweigh 4 to 1 its injurious ones.
Instead of being persecuted it should receive protection.
LIST OF INVERTEBRATES DESTROYED BY THE BUTCILERBIRD,
Orthoptera:
Grasshoppers (-Acridiida) j
Crickets (Gryllide).
Coleoptera:
Ground beetles (Carabide).
Tiger beetles (Cicindelidw).
Darkling beetles (Tenebrionida).
Diptera:
Flies.
TTymenoptera:
Ants (Formicidw),
Wasps.
Lepidoptera:
Cut worms (Noctuida).
Bristly caterpillars (Arctiidae),
Arachnida:
Spiders.
Myriapoda:
Thousand-logs (Jules),
Crustacea:
Sand fleas (Amphipoda).
Melanoplus,
Tettir.
INSECT FOOD OF THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE.
LIST OF INSECTS DESTROYED BY THE LOGGERHEAD.!
Orthoptera:
Melanoplus femurrubrum.
Camnula atrox.
Dissosteira carolina.
Schistocerca americana,
Acridiide...
Grasshoppers --.. -
Locustide.
Crickets and mole crickets (Gryllide).
Coleoptera:
Anisodactylus,
Amara interstitialis.
Lebia.
Harpalus.
Pterostichus.
Carabus ?.
May beetles.
Ground beetles (Carabida) .-..
Canthon.
Scarabwidsa .........-.--.---- Tumblebugs... 7
Geotrupes.
Flower beetles (Zuphoria).
Histerids (ister).
Longicorn beetles (Cerambycidw).
Rove beetles (Staphylinide).
Tiger beetles (Cicindelide).
Click beetles (Zlateridw) [Melanotus].
Carrion beetles (Silphide) ene PETIOSES or
Necrophorus marginatus.
Weevils (Rhynchophora).
: ree Upis ceramboides.
Darkling beetles ( Tenebrionide) ee ens mineeare
Hemiptera:
Bugs (Heteroptera).
Odonata :
Dragon flies.... ie PON
? Libellula.
Lepidoptera:
Cutworms (Noctuide).
Canker-worms (Geometride).
Arctiide.
Hymenoptera :
Por ee ace --- Camponotus pennsylvanicus,
Myrmicide.
Wasps (Vespina, Sphecina, Urocerus).
Diptera:
Crane flies (Tipulidae).
Ephemeride : ;
May flies.
OTHER INVERTEBRATES DESTROYED BY THE LOGGERHEAD.
Spiders.
Snails.
Thousand legs.
Dung beetles (Aphodius hyperboreus).
25
' Some of these insects are from records sent in by Mr. Ernest Seton Thompson.
3225—No, 9 3
96 cCUCKOOS AND SHRIKES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
Table showing percentages of principal elements of food of the butcherbird and loggerhead,
calculated by volume.
3 lee ster.
.| 3 je |o8 aagla|¢ 3
ao |s le le ® era hp) | 3 S
2 2 lg oeas Tao aS: ||, 2 |
S| 4a eae Pane st 9/O} 9 Sonik 6
Name. x |@|3 (Pseeeer es ~|@Zlig | 3 onth. Be
2ir I 2, PaO] gy Dio] gq D
oO te G HO|Pe| oO =lot & md
Sl/olg| Ss ov javtig| a alse |e 3
SiR |S)H 2 Be a/ Siete] é
Fla ls8 6 le“) a els (o/s x
Butcherbird ....... 77 | 23 | 22 | 55 | seas Ben Bay A) Gee ea) . 33
Loggerhead. ‘| 78) 24) 55/14) 7/43) 1)...) 2 4) }Dec., Jan., and Feb....-.-. 5 i
Butcherbird 77) 23) 46.) 31 ....| 9] 1] 3 3] 2) . 17
a0} 80] 9] 9) 3) 24! 9] 431/14) ag ipMar-and Apr....--.--..--. { 16
11] 89| 3).... 8/71] 3]... 4] 7] 4) Mayand June...........--. 17
2198 |weln.. 2/87] 2) &1 2) 5S) 181 duly, Ang, and Gepte..n.. 22
271/73) 11|16 ....) 57) 4]....) 6) 4] 2 17
10/90 ew LO) [7 8 | 13 | 12 fOet and Nove. es--es esses {13
Butcherbird .| 60 | 40 | 26 | 34 !....) 24] 3] 2; 6| 4] 1 | Average Oct. to Apr., incl.| 67
Loggerhead .| 28 | 72/16] 8| 4/389) 4} 3 _ 4.9 13 | Average forthe whole year.| 88
THE MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE,
BY
: FE. Ey Le BEAL
> Assistant Ornithologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture. »
(REPRINTED FROM THE YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FOR 1895.) .
(Reprinted from the Yearbook of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture for 1895.]
THE MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
By F. E, L. Brat,
Assistant Ornithologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The oriole family includes the true orioles, the blackbirds, and the
meadow larks. The different members of the tribe differ greatly
among themselves in form, plumage, and habits. While the true
orioles are strictly arboreal, hanging their nests among the most inac-
cessible twigs of tall trees, the meadow larks are mainly terrestrial,
placing their humble domiciles on the ground or even stinken a little
below the surface. Between these extremes come the blackbirds, some
of which, as the redwing, breed among reeds and in low bushes, while
others, as the crow blackbird, nest chiefly in the tops of trees. As
might be expected, the feeding habits of these birds differ greatly.
. The oriole seeks its food almost exclusively in trees, while the
meadow lark is a ground feeder. Consequently, the kinds of insects
eaten are not the same. The oriole feeds largely on caterpillars and
wasps, which live among leaves and flowers; the meadow lark, on the
other hand, eats grasshoppers and other ground insects. After a
careful consideration of their food, one can hardly fail to be impressed
with the fact that both of these birds must be eminently useful to the
farmer.
In the case of the meadow lark, insects constitute a large percentage
of the food, and even in the winter months, when the ground is covered
with snow, they form a very important element. The great bulk of
these are grasshoppers, insects whose ravages have been notorious
from earliest times and whose devastations in the Mississippi Valley
are still fresh in the minds of the farmers of that region. The number
eaten is so enormous as to entitle the meadow lark to rank among the
most efficient of our native birds as a grasshopper destroyer. Nor are
the other components of its insect food less important except in quan-
tity. Some of the most injurious beetles form a considerable percent-
age of the stomach contents, while the useful species do not appear
so often as might be expected from the terrestrial habits of the bird.
The other insects eaten—ants, bugs, caterpillars, and beetle larvee—
are almost all destructive, and their consumption by birds is a decided
benefit to man.
The oriole, although differing radically from the meadow lark
in food and manner of life, is not the less beneficial from an eco-
nomic point of view. It is a most potent factor in the destruction
419
420 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of caterpillars, eating so many that if no other insects were taken it
would still be classed as a useful bird. It does not, however, restrict
its diet to caterpillars, but eats great numbers of injurious beetles, and
also many bugs and grasshoppers. In the matter of vegetable food
the record is nearly as good, for although corn, peas, and a few fruits
are eaten, they appear in such small quantities as to have little
economic significance.
FOOD OF THE MEADOW LARK.
The common meadow lark is a familar bird of the open country
throughout the United States, although it is less abundant in the
desert areas. Alike on the meadows of the East, the prairies of the
West, and the savannas of the South, its clear pipe may be heard in
the spring, announcing the return of the season of mating and nest
building. It chooses for its home meadow lands or other level ground
free from trees, and, if possible, near a supply of water, for it delights
to drink and bathe in clear running brooks. Its nest, usually over-
arched to protect the eggs and the sitting bird from the weather, is
built on the ground among last year’s herbage, and is often so com-
pletely hidden as to defy the efforts of the most skillful searcher.
The bird’s preference for unmown fields, covered with what farmers
call ‘Sold fog,” has given rise to the name ‘‘old-field lark,” by which
it is known in some places.
While the great bulk of the species migrate from the Northern
States, small flocks sometimes remain throughout the winter. South
of the latitude of Pennsylvania the birds may be found at all seasons,
though in somewhat reduced numbers during the colder months.
Early in March they begin to move northward, and soon spread over
the whole northern United States and extend into Canada. The
southward migration begins in September, and by the end of October
all are gone.
The common meadow lark (Sturnella magna) inhabits the eastern
United States and ranges as far west as the Great Plains. The West-
ern form (S. neglecta) is mingled with it in the Mississippi Valley, and
thence to the Pacific Coast replaces it completely. The economic
aspects of the two birds are practically the same.
As a rule farmers do not look upon the meadow lark (fig. 110) as an
injurious bird, though a few complaints against it have been received.
It has been accused of pulling sprouting grain and of eating clover seed
(presumably newly sown) to an injurious extent. As these are the
only charges of any consequence among thousands relating to damaye
done by other birds, it appears that the food habits of the meadow
lark do not materially conflict with the interests of the farmer. This
supposition is fully substantiated by the result of examinations of the
contents of the bird’s stomach, and it is still further shown that, far
from being injurious, it is one of the most useful allies to agriculture, » -
standing almost without a peer as a destroyer of noxious insects.
MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. __. 421
In the laboratory investigation of the food of the meadow lark, 238
stomachs were examined; these were collected in 24 States, the Dis-
trict of Columbia, and Canada, and represent every month in the
year. Asummary of the stomach contents for the whole year is as
follows: Insect food, 71.7 per cent; vegetable food, 26.5; mineral mat-
ter, 1.8. Excluding the mineral element, which is not food, the record
stands: Animal matter, 73 per cent; vegetable, 27. In other words,
nearly three-fourths of the meadow lark’s food for the year, including
the winter months, consists of insects. ;
In August and September the meadow lark subsists almost exclu-
sively on insect food, but this is not surprising, as insects are abund-
ant at this season. In March, however, insects are not readily found;
yet the meadow lark finds enough to make 73 per cent of its entire
food. Similarly in December and January the insect food amounts
to 39 and 24 per cent, respectively.
Fia. 110.—Meadow lark (Sturnella magna).
As an illustration of the meadow lark’s vigilance in searching for
insects, an instructive lesson may be drawn from the examination of
the stomachs of 6 birds killed in Virginia when the ground was cov-
ered with snow. The smallest quantity of insect food in any one of
the 6 stomachs was 8 per cent of the contents, the largest quantity
95 per cent, and the average for all 6 more than 47 per cent, or nearly
half of the total food. The insects consisted of beetles of several
species, bugs (Hemiptera), grasshoppers, crickets, a few wasps, cater-
pillars, spiders, and myriapods. Thus it is evident that insects form
an essential element of the bird’s diet, and are obtained even under
very adverse circumstances.
Of the total insect food of the 238 birds examined, grasshoppers,
locusts (green grasshoppers), and crickets constitute by far the most
422 YEARBOOK OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
important element, averaging 29 per cent of all food consumed during
the year. Even in January they form more than 1 per cent, and
increase rapidly until August, when they reach the surprising amount
of 69 per cent. They decrease slowly during the autumn months, but
in November still amount to 28 per cent, but naturally fall away
quickly in winter. It is extremely doubtful if any other bird will
show a better grasshopper record than this. Professor Aughey, in
his report on the insects eaten by the birds of Nebraska (First Annual
Report U. 8. Entomological Commission, 1877, Appendix II, p. 34),
credits the meadow lark with destroying large numbers of grasshop-
pers. It should be borne in mind that the birds which form the sub-
ject of this paper were not collected in any region especially infested
with grasshoppers, but were gathered from nearly all parts of the
United States. Out of the whole number of stomachs (238), 178 con-
tained grasshoppers, one containing as many as 37. Of the 28 birds
taken in August, in seven different States, all but one contained them,
and one stomach, from New York, was filled with 30 common grass-
hoppers, 14 green grasshoppers (Locustide), and 10 crickets. Of 29
stomachs collected in seven States in September, every one contained
grasshoppers, and two contained nothing else. Of the 40 stomachs
collected in October from ten States, all but two contained grasshop-
pers and crickets. 3
Dr. A. K. Fisher has made some interesting calculations upon the
amount of hay saved by the destruction of grasshoppers by Swainson’s
hawk, and it would not seem to be out of place to attempt to reduce
to a numerical basis the good done by the meadow lark in the con-
sumption of these insects. Dr. Fisher gives the weight of an average
grasshopper as 15.4 grains, and entomologists place the daily food of
a grasshopper as equal to the creature’s own weight, an estimate prob-
ably much within the limit of truth. Remains of as many as 54 grass-
hoppers have been found in a single meadow lark’s stomach, but this
is much above the number usually eaten at one time. Such food, how-
ever, is digested rapidly and it is safe to assume that at least 50 grass-
hoppers are eaten each day. If the number of birds breeding in 1
square mile of meadow land is estimated at 5 pairs, and the number of
young that reach maturity at only 2 for each pair, or 10 in all, there
will be 20 birds on a square mile during the grasshopper season. On
this basis, the birds would destroy 30,000 grasshoppers in one month.
Assuming that each grasshopper, if let alone, would have lived thirty
days, the thousand grasshoppers eaten by the larks each day represent
a saving of 2.2 pounds of forage, or 66 pounds in all for the month.
If the value of this forage is estimated at $10 per ton (which is below
the average price of hay in the Eastern markets), the value of the crop
saved by meadow larks on a township of 36 square miles each month
during the grasshopper season would be about $356.
Beetles of many species stand next to crickets and grasshoppers in
MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 423
importance, and constitute nearly 18 per cent of the annual food, but
‘as these insects vary much in their economic relations it will be best
to consider the different families separately. Among the most impor-
tant are the May beetles (Scarabeide), a family which contains some
of our most injurious insects as well as many harmless species. But
as the great majority of the members live upon vegetable food, and
may at any time turn their attention to useful plants, the whole fam-
ily may be classed as potentially harmful, consequently the birds do
no harm by eating them. The average consumption of May beetles
amounts to about 4 per cent of the entire food of the year. The
greatest numbers are eaten in May, when they form over 21 per cent
of the food. Most of these are dung beetles, but some remains of the
well-known Lachnosterna are found. The snout beetles, or weevils
(Rhyncophora), form a small but very constant element, averaging
about 3 per cent for the year. June shows the greatest consumption,
with over 7 per cent, and, singularly enough, January stands next,
with almost 5 per cent. The principal families represented are the
cureulios (Curculionide) and the scarred snout beetles (Otiorhyn-
chide), both of which include some of the most harmful insects known,
and no useful ones. The plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar)
is a well-known example.
Other beetles, belonging to about a dozen families, collectively form
about 3 per cent of the whole food. Of these the most interesting are
the leaf beetles (Chrysomelide), which are supposed to be disagreea-
ble to birds, but whose remains were found in 19 of the 238 stomachs
,examined. The Colorado potato beetle is a member of this family,
and while none were actually found, it seems highly probable that
meadow larks might eat them if they fell in their way.
One of the important questions in regard to the diet of insectivorous
birds is the extent to which they eat predaceous beetles (Carabide),
for many of these beetles are beneficial. From its ground-feeding
habits the meadow lark might be expected to subsist largely upon
carabids, as they also live mainly upon the ground and are very
abundant. The examination shows that these insects constitute some-
thing more than 7 per cent of the food during the year, but are very
curiously distributed, attaining maxima of 20, 16, and 17 per cent,
respectively, in March, July, and November, while the minimum
records (less than 1, 2, and 4 per cent) fall in January, May, and Sep-
tember. This is certainly a very moderate showing when it is con-
sidered that the meadow lark feeds almost exclusively on the ground
where these beetles are so abundant, and it seems to indicate that
instead of seeking them the bird simply eats such as fall in its way in
default of better food.
Bugs (Hemiptera) are pretty regularly eaten throughout the year,
averaging 4 per cent of all the food. The greater number belong to
the family of stink bugs (Pentatomide), some of which are familiar
424 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
to all who have eaten raspberries from the vines. Those who have
by accident tasted the bugs will never forget the flavor and will
wonder that any bird habitually eats such highly seasoned food.
Most of these bugs are eaten in March, when they constitute 14 per
cent of the food of the month. While some of them are harmful as
well as disgusting, others do much good by devouring other insects,
so that the destruction of the various members of this family is not
an unmixed benefit. It is important to note that one stomach con-
tained three specimens of the notorious chinch bug, an insect whose
ravages in our wheat and corn fields have cost the country millions
of dollars.
‘Caterpillars, or the larve of butterflies and moths, form a very
considerable part of the food of the meadow lark, but the adults are
rarely eaten, only three small moths having been found in the 238
stomachs. Caterpillars were present in every month except Febru-
ary, and even the stomachs taken in December contained 4 per cent
of this food, while the average for the year is nearly 8 per cent.
From the terrestrial habits of the meadow lark, it is evident that the
caterpillars eaten must be species that live on or near the ground
and feed on grass or other low plants. To this category belong the
various species of cutworms. A number of these were identified in
the stomachs, and no doubt many more were eaten, but they are so
fragile and so soon reduced to fragments by the stomach’s action that
specific identification is always difficult and often impossible.
The larve or young of beetles were found in every month except
February, and formed more than 3 per cent of the food of the year.
They increased to 11 per cent in May, and were sufficiently numerous
to be important throughout the season except in August, September,
and October, when they amounted to less than 1 per cent.
Ants form a fairly constant element of the meadow lark’s diet,
averaging a little less than 3 per cent for the year. None were found
in January, but in April they formed 4 per cent of the food. They
decreased during the succeeding months, but increased suddenly to
over 16 per cent in September, after which they again fell to an insig-
nificant figure. Other Iymenoptera (wasps, ete.) average about
14 per cent for the year, and are only important in June and July,
when they amount to 6 and 4 per cent, respectively. Spiders and
myriapods (thousand-legs) seem to be eaten quite freely, and aggre-
gate nearly 5 per cent of the food. The largest number (8 per cent)
are eaten in March and December, but the percentage falls off
during the winter and in midsummer. Besides the insects already
mentioned, several were found representing other orders. Flies
(Diptera) were contained in a few stomachs, a dragon fly (Odonata)
in one, an earwig (Forficulide) in one, and a common cattle tick
(Ixodes) in one. Snails, or fragments of their shells, were found in
Seven stomachs, sow bugs (Oniscus) in two, a small crustacean in one,
MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 425
and the bones of small frogs or toads (Batrachians) in three. These
last were from stomachs taken in Florida, and do not appear to be a
favorite food.
From the foregoing, it is evident that the meadow lark is preemi-
nently an insect eater; still it has recourse when necessary to vege-
table food.
As before stated, the total vegetable food for the year amounts to 27
percent. Of this, grain (corn, wheat, and oats) aggregates 14.4 per
cent, or a trifle more than half. The percentages of the different kinds
of grain are: Corn, 11.1; wheat, 1.8; oats, 1.4. The largest quantity of
grain was eaten in January, when the stomachs contained 53 per cent
of corn, 11 per cent of wheat, and 9 per cent of oats. During the sum-
mer months the grain disappears, to appear again as the supply of
insects fails. Sprouting grain was not found in any stomach. In
April the total amount of grain was a little less than 15 per cent, and
this may have been taken from newly sown fields. In May no wheat
or oats were found, and only 1.9 per cent of corn.
Seeds of plants classed as weeds were found in every month except
May, and it is probable that a greater number of stomachs in that
month would have shown at least a few. Excepting the single stom-
ach taken in February, which contained 75 per cent of barn-grass
seed (Chameraphis,) weed.seeds attain their maximum of over 25
per cent in December. The average for the year is a little more than
11 per cent, or the same as corn. The remaining vegetable food aver-
ages less than 1 per cent. Fruit seems to be accidental, each of the
varieties named having been found in only one or two stomachs, and
in small quantity. ‘The same is true of the articles enumerated in the
miscellaneous list. Complaints have been made against the meadow
lark on the score of eating newly sown clover seed to an injurious
extent; this seed, however, was found in only six stomachs, and each
contained but a few seeds.
The testimony of the stomachs does not indicate that grain is pre-
ferred to other seeds, and it can not be urged that it is less easily
obtained than seeds of weeds, for grain is a prominent crop through-
out much of the country inhabited by meadow larks, and on account
of its larger kernels is picked up more easily than smaller seeds. The
meadow larks might be expected to injure grain when they collect in
flocks, as they sometimes do, but at the time of harvesting wheat and
oats they are not found in flocks, and the record shows that practically
no wheat or oats were found in the stomachs, it being the season when
insects were most abundant and formed nearly the whole food. As
an illustration, the stomach of a bird killed in a field of shocked oats
contained nothing but insects. In September and October, when corn
is being harvested, the amount of this grain found in the stomachs was
less than 1 per cent. In November, when insects begin to fail, the
vegetable food increases, but itis worthy of note that weeds (Ambrosia,
426 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
‘Chameraphis, ete.) are preferred, for in this month grain amounts
to only 6 per cent, while weed seeds reach 15 per cent.
_ Insumming up the record of the meadow lark, two points should be
especially noted: (1) The bird is most emphatically an insect eater,
evidently preferring insects above all other food; and (2) in default
of its favorite food it can subsist on a vegetable diet. Prof. 8. A.
Forbes, in discussing the food of predaceous beeties (Bull. IIL State
Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 3, p. 159), calls attention to the fact that
species which are able to vary their diet and subsist upon vegetable
food when their ordinary supply of insects fails, are much more valu-
able than those which are entirely carnivorous. This is exactly the
ease with the meadow lark. For this reason a relatively short migra-
tion enables it to bridge over periods of scarcity of its favorite food.
FOOD OF THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
The Baltimore oriole, golden robin, or hang-nest (fig. 111), as it is
variously called, is so well and so favorably known throughout the
country that it may seem almost unnecessary to show that its food
habits are as beneficial as its song and plumage are pleasing. In most
places where this bird makes its home, the people, especially the
farmer-folk, would no more think of killing it or destroying its nest
than would the Hollander shoot the stork that nests on his roof.
The Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula) breeds throughout the east-
ern United States north of Virginia, and reaches somewhat farther
south in the Mississippi Valley. It is abundant in New England, and
extends west over the tree-covered parts of the Great Plains, beyond
which it is replaced by another species of much the same appearance
(I. bullockt), In New England the oriole usually comes with the
flowering of the apple trees, in the latter half of May; in the West it
appears somewhat earlier. As its food consists largely of insects that
live in the foliage of trees, its arrival in the North is delayed until
these have become plentiful. It begins to move southward early in
August, and is rarely seen in September, though one of the specimens
examined was taken in Connecticut as late as November 16; but this
must be regarded as a belated straggler. The species passes south of
the United States, to spend the winter in the warmer countries beyond.
The present preliminary report is based on the examination of the
contents of 113 stomachs, collected in 12 States, the District of Co-
lumbia, and Canada, and ranging from Massachusetts, on the east, to
Kansas and North Dakota, on the west. They were all collected dur-
ing the months from April to August, inclusive, with the exception
of a single specimen taken in November. They are distributed by
months as follows: April, 2; May, 45; June, 32; July, 18; August, 15;
and November, 1.
The food for the whole season consisted of 83.4 per cent of animal
matter and 16.6 per cent of vegetable matter. The mineral matter
MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 427
found in the stomachs is not really food, and was taken in such small
quantities that it may be disregarded. As April is represented by
only two stomachs, and November by one, the results for these months
can not be considered as final. Excluding November, the largest
amount of insect food was eaten in May, when it formed 92 per cent
of the food, and the smallest in April and July, when it formed 70 per
cent. The single November stomach contained 98 per cent of insects.
The most important item of the insect food is caterpillars, which
aggregate more than 34 per cent of the whole. Contrary to what
might have been expected, the Connecticut stomach taken in Novem-
ber contained 81 per cent of these insects. This accords with what
has been noted by many observers in the field, that the oriole spends a
Fiq. 111.—Baltimore oriole (Icterus galbula).
great deal of time searching among leaves and branches, where such
insects abound. An average of 25 per cent of caterpillars was found
in the two stomachs taken in April, and this percentage continued
without much variation until July, when it dropped to 12, July being
the month when most fruit was eaten. After July the percentage of
caterpillars eaten increases rapidly.
Beetles of various families and species rank next to caterpillars in
abundance. Those most eaten are the click, or snapping, beetles (Hla-
teride), insects having very hard shells, which would seem to render
them undersirable for food. Although eaten during May, June, and
July only, click beetles constitute 9 per cent of the food for these
months or 4.5 per cent for each of the six months under consideration,
428 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE.
These beetles and their larvee, known as ‘‘wireworms,” are among the
most destructive insects with which the farmer has to contend. Pro-
fessor Comstock says of the click beetles:
There is hardly a cultivated plant that they do not infest; and working as they
do, beneath the surface of the ground, it is extremely difficult to destroy them.
Not only do they infest a great variety of plants, but they are very apt to attack
them at the most susceptible period of their growth, before they have attained
sufficient size and strength to withstand the attack, and often the seed is destroyed
before it has germinated. Thus fields of corn or other grain are ruined at the
outset.
As there are over 500 species of snapping beetles in North America,
it is easy to understand how welcome is any assistance in the struggle
against them, and it is gratifying to know that the oriole is especially
fond of them.
The May beetles (Scarabeide) stand next to the click beetles in
importance as food of the oriole. They were found in stomachs col-
lected during every month from May to August, but only in May and
June was the percentage important, viz, 12 and 7 per cent, respec-
tively. The average for the whole season was 34 per cent. These
insects consisted of the common May beetle (Lachnosterna), several
species of dung beetles (Aphodius), and a number of the leaf-eating
beetles (Dichelonycha). So far as known dung beetles do no harm,
but the other two genera are very injurious. Leaf beetles (Chrysome-
lide) are not supposed to be a favorite food of birds, owing to their
disagreeable excretion, but they were eaten by the orioles in every
month except November. In July they amounted to 8 per cent, in
August 5, and averaged nearly 3 per cent of the food for the season.
More than half a dozen species belonging to this family were identified
in the contents of the stomachs. Among them was the well-known
striped squash beetle (Diabrotica vittata), which in the larval state
bores the roots of squashes or cucumbers, and when adult feeds on
their leaves.
Another member of the same family (Odontota dorsalis) feeds on
the leaves of the locust, and in some places ruins the trees, while
another of the same genus (O. rubra) feeds on apple trees. Both of
these were identified in the stomachs. Snout beetles or weevils
(Rhyncophora) form a small but fairly constant element of the oriole’s
diet, amounting to a little more than 2 per cent for the season. In
May they formed 5 per cent of the food, and then decreased to less
than 2 per cent in July, but in August increased a little. All are
noxious insects, and belong for the most part to the families of the
curculios and the scarred snout beetles (Otivrynchide). Members of
six other families of beetles were found, but not in sufficient numbers
to be of economic importance, although it is interesting to note that
one of the blister beetles was among the number.” As most of these
beetles contain a secretion that produces blisters, it would seem to us
that they must be rather disagreeable as an article of food.
MEADOW LARK AND BALTIMORE ORIOLE. 429
The predaceous beetles (Carabide) constitute an element of great
interest in the food of any bird, since the number eaten is commonly
taken as a criterion of the comparative usefulness of the bird. As
these beetles themselves live for the most part on other insects, it is
evidently desirable that they should be allowed to pursue this good
work as long as possible. That they are not molested by orioles is
proved by the fact that in the stomachs é¢xamined predaceous beetles
averaged only one-half of 1 per cent for the season, and the greatest
number taken in any month amounted to little more than 1 per cent.
Wasps (Hymenoptera) constitute an important element of the food
in every month, varying from 20 per cent in April to about 8 per cent
in July, and averaging nearly 11 per cent for the season. As these
insects spend a large part of their time buzzing about flowers and
leaves, it seems only natural that they should be eaten by the oriole.
Ants, which also belong to the Hymenoptera, are eaten to some extent
through the spring and summer, but are only important in April and
May, when they form about 10 per cent of the food. They belong
for the most part to the large black species of Camponotus, which live
on trees and nurse plant lice.
Bugs (Hemiptera) of various species are favorites with the orioles,
as they are with many other birds, and form about 6 per cent of the
food for the season. None were found in April, about +4 per cent in
May, after which they increased to nearly 10 per cent in July, but
again decreased to 4 per cent in August. Many of these are stink
bugs (Pentatomidce), which crawl over berries and impart a disgust-
ing flavor to them. Others belong to the family of assassin bugs
(Reduvide), which feed on other insects; but the most interesting
members of this order are the scale lice (Coccidce) and common plant
lice (Aphides), two of the most destructive families of insects known.
They are so minute that it seems surprising that any bird should care
to eat them, but scale lice were found in eight stomachs and aphids
in four. Flies (Diptera) make up more than 4 per cent of the food in
May, and no less than 7 per cent in the single stomach taken in No-
vember. The most interesting are the larvee of the March fly (Bibio),
of which one stomach contained about 100. These larve feed on roots
of grass and evidently must have been obtained from the ground.
' Several long-legged crane flies (Tipulide), with their eggs, were also
found.
Grasshoppers and locusts were eaten in June, July, and August to
the extent of 1, 11, and 17 per cent, respectively. In capturing these
insects it is evident that the orioles must alight on the ground,
attracted no doubt by the abundant supply and the ease with which
such food can be obtained, for at this season it can hardly be sup-
posed ‘there is a dearth of caterpillars and other insects which they
usually find on the trees. Spiders also constitute a favorite food, aver-
aging nearly 6 per cent for the season. In May they form 5 per cent
430 YEARBOOK OF THE U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of the food, and gradually increase to nearly 12 per cent in August.
Some of the stomachs taken during the breeding season in April,
May, and June contained bits of. snail shells, which were probably
eaten for the lime they contain.
Vegetable food of the oriole.—For its vegetable food, the oriole pre-
fers fruit, but also eats grain and the seeds of weeds. Six kinds of
fruits were found in the stomachs. Of these, cherries, raspberries, and
mulberries are or may be cultivated. Cherries were identified in two
stomachs, and four others contained fruit pulp too much digested for
recognition. Assuming that this pulp came from cherries, six stom-
achs in all contained this fruit. Raspberries or blackberries were
found in eleven stomachs. As this fruit is as likely to be wild as cul-
tivated, the record does not necessarily indicate that the bird does
much damage.. Mulberries were found in only three stomachs, June-
berries in nine, huckleberries in one, and elder berries in one. Next to
Rubus fruits (blackberries and raspberries), Juneberries seem to be
preferred, and it is noteworthy that several orioles shot on or near
cherry trees in bearing had no cherries in their stomachs, but some
seeds of Rubus and Juneberries.
Green corn was found in one stomach and peas in two, hardly
enough to establish the bird’s reputation as a pilferer of fields and
gardens; and as only one observer has seen it eat peas, and none corn,
it may be safely said that the harm done is trifling. No traces of
sprouting oats or other grain were discovered, except in one stomach,
taken in April, which contained some obscure vegetable substance
that may have been sprouting peas nearly digested.
If the two stomachs taken in April and the one in November are
excluded, the percentage of vegetable food for the season stands
about as follows: May, 7 per cent; June, 8; July, 29; August, 12.
The sudden rise in July and the falling off in August are very notice-
able. Moreover, in July the vegetable food consisted entirely of fruit.
While the generally harmless character of the oriole is almost uni-
versally acknowledged, a few instances of damage to fruit have been
reported. Itis accused of eating berries and garden peas, and several
correspondents say that it injures grapes. Even John Burroughs
brands it as an enemy of the vineyard, but the harm it does in this way
is probably overestimated. Mr. W. F. Webster, of Oshkosh, Wis.,
states that it sometimes punctures grapes to suck the juice, but adds
that the bird is worth its weight in gold as an insect destroyer. The
stomach cxaminations show that it destroys immense numbers of ¢cat-
erpillars, grasshoppers, bugs, and noxious beetles, and does not prey
to a noticeable extent on predaccous or useful beetles. Added to these
good qualities, its brilliant plumage, sprightly manners, pleasing song,
and skill in nest building excite our admiration, Let the farmer con-
tinue to hold his good opinion of the oriole, and accord it the protec-
tion it so well deserves.
“(snuoaziuo xAuoyanod) MNITOSOG S3HL 4O BONVY ONIGASYG ONIMOHS dv
MISSISSIPPI
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BULLETIN No. 13
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
DIVISION OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
BOO)
OF THE
BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES
BY
FEF. EB. L. BEAL, B.S.
ASSISTANT BIOLOGIST
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
DR. C. HART MERRIAM
CHIEF OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1900
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. 8. DEpartMEeNT oF AGRICULTURE,
Division oF BroLocicaL SURVEY,
Washington, D. C., May 22, 1900.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication as Bul-
letin No. 13 a report on ‘The Food of the Bobolink, Blackbirds, and
Grackles,’ by Prof. F. E. L. Beal, assistant biologist. This report is
based on a careful examination of the contents of more than 4,800
stomachs, representing nine species and several subspecies of Amer-
ican blackbirds. The family of orioles and blackbirds, to which the
bobolink, cowbird, blackbirds, and grackles belong, is one of much
economic importance. The ravages of the bobolink in the rice fields
of the South, and of some of the blackbirds in the grainfields of the
Upper Mississippi Valley at planting and harvesting time, are matters
of common knowledge, but the other food of these and other species
is not so well known. The present bulletin is devoted mainly to the
food of the various blackbirds during the summer months; several of
the species consume insects in such quantities at this time as to com-
pensate in great measure for the grain they destroy.
Respectfully
, C. Hart MERRIAM,
Chief, Biological Survey.
Hon. James Wiison,
Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
Entroducti ont sese's Gus es ciciot eee lod bce menie eee ecedie eececeesssaeiees
Bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) ...--.------ 2-2-2222 eee eee e eee eee ene
Cowbind, (Moloth tig Glér) 3.52 /pie tons cocaaectenetiamun oad ooa te seeaeuawlnnden
Yellow-headed blackbird (Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus).....-.-++----+++---
Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phaniceus)...---------------+--e- eee eee
California red-winged blackbird (Agelaius gubernator californicus) ....----+---
Rusty blackbird (Scolecophagus carolinus) ...-----++------ ae eee e eee eee eee
Brewer’s blackbird (Scolecophagus cyanocephalus) ...---.----+-------+----0---
Crow blackbird ( Quiscalus quiscula).....----.-2-------- 2222-022 -e eee ee eee
Boat-tailed grackle ( Quiscalus major).....-.----- sind neea rane ee eepenEeseuE aie
Distribution.of stomachs: oc avicescace cates cantnsweaededccc sé wiemsia cues
FOOD OF THE BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKTES,
By F. E. L. Bear, B.S.,
Assistant Biologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION.
The birds commonly known as bobolinks, meadowlarks, orioles,
blackbirds, grackles, and cowbirds are all comprised in a group
known as the family Icteride, which is represented if the United
States by 29 species and subspecies. These differ remarkably in
plumage, nesting habits, and methods of obtaining food. The plain
black in which many of them are clothed is relieved in the redwing hy
a touch of brilliant color, and in the bobolink (in spring dress) by white
and buff; in the orioles it is usually reduced to a few patches to offset
the bright tints; and in the meadowlarks is restricted to a black cres-
cent on the breast. The orioles build their nests in trees, sometimes
at a considerable height, and obtain their food among the leaves and
branches. The bobolinks and meadowlarks build upon the ground
and depend for food upon such insects and seeds as they find on the
surface. The other species take an intermediate position, some, such
as the crow blackbird, building in trees, and others on low bushes and
rushes, but all obtaining the greater part of their food on the ground,
In this bulletin are discussed the food habits of the bobolink, the
cowbird, the yellow-headed blackbird, the red-winged biackbird, the
California red-winged blackbird, the rusty blackbird, Brewer's black-
bird, the crow blackbird, and the boat-tailed grackle. These comprise
all the important members of the group with the exception of the
meadowlarks and orioles.!. One or more of these specics may be
found at some time of the year in every State and Territory. As they
are much given to nesting and feeding about farms and stock yards
or to visiting outlying grainfields and pastures, the character of their
food becomes a question of considerable importance to the cultivator.
'A report on the food of the meadowlark and Baltimore oriole was published in
the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1895, pp. 419-430; a preliminary
report on the food habits of the crow blackbird appeared in the Yearbook for 1894,
pp. 233-248; and the grain-eating habits of most of the blackbirds were discussed
under the title ‘Birds injurious to grain,’ in the Yearbook for 1897, pp. 35-354,
i
8 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES
Writers on ornithology give notes on the food of various species of
birds, based for the most part on field observation, and in some cases
on examination of stomachs, but usually such investigations are neither
extensive nor systematic. In the early days, when birds were abun-
dant and grainfields few, blackbirds, or ‘maize thieves,’ as they were
called, were the first species to render themselves objects of notice by
their attacks upon the crops of the early settlers, and bounties were
offered for their destruction; in fact, they had already acquired a bad
reputation with the aborigines by their depredations upon the patches
of maize. Their very pronounced taste for grain, and their habit of
associating in large flocks, soon attracted the attention of pioneer
farmers everywhere; and it did not take these shrewd observers long
to decide that the birds were a nuisance and to plan for their extermina-
tion. All devices of this kind, however, have (fortunately, perhaps)
proved futile. The birds still flourish, though in somewhat reduced
numbers, and are still a source of considerable damage in many places.
At the present day direct bounties are not so much in vogue as they
were when the country was newer; and State laws protecting birds have
become numerous. But the evil repute of the blackbirds has caused
them to be omitted from many of these statutes, while in others
either blackbirds in general or particular species are specially ox-
empted from protection. Blackbirds in general are specially exempted
in Maryland, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Arkansas; the
crow blackbird in Vermont, Massachusetts, South Carolina, and IIli-
nois; the ricebird (bobolink) in Georgia; the ‘common blackbird’
and the crow blackbird in New York; the crow blackbird in Rhode
Island; and the crow blackbird and redwing in New Jersey.
In certain States near the Atlantic seaboard some species, notably the
bobolink, are regarded as game, and an open season is provided for
shooting them. In New Jersey ‘recdbirds’ (bobolinks) may be law-
fully killed from August 25 to January 1; in Pennsylvania from Sep-
tember 1 to November 30; in Delaware from September 1 to February
1; and in Maryland between September 1 and November 1. In the
District of Columbia the redwing is included with the bobolink, and
shooting is permitted on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, between
August 21 and February 1.
The investigation of the food of blackbirds by the examination of
the contents of their stomachs, while confirming to a certain extent
the popular estimate of their grain-eating propensities, has shown
aso that during the season when grain is not accessible these birds
destroy immense quantities of seeds of harmful weeds, and that during
the whole of the warmer portion of the year, even when grain is easily
obtained, they devour a great number of noxious inscets. The vege-
table portion of the food usually considerably exceeds the animal.
INTRODUCTION. 9
The latter consists mostly of insects,1 with the addition in a few species
of some crustaceans and snails and now and then a small vertebrate.
The vegetable food comprises chiefly hard seeds, of which any grain
may be taken asa sample. Fruit is eaten by a few species, but not to
an injurious extent, and various other vegetable substances are occa-
sionally taken, such as bits of fleshy tubers or roots, mast, mush-
rooms, etc.
If the blackbirds were to be rated in the order of their grain-eating
propensities as shown by stomach examinations, putting those that eat
least at the head of the list, they would stand about as follows: Bobo-
link, redwing, cowbird, rusty blackbird, yellowhead, crow blackbird,
boat-tailed grackle, Brewer’s blackbird, and California redwing. It
is a singular fact that the first two are the ones against which the
greatest complaint has been made, thus showing that some factors
beside the amount of grain actually eaten by the individual must be
taken into account in determining the relative harmfulness of the
species. In the case of the bobolink, however, it should be explained
that the stomachs upon which the record is founded were nearly all
taken in the North, and do not exhibit the bird’s rice-eating propensi-
ties. Still it is probable that if a proportionate number of stomachs
from Southern States were included in the examination there would
be no great change in the result. The damage from which the com-
plaint arises is due to the fact that all the bobolinks reared in the
Eastern States gather in spring and autumn upon a limited area and
attack a single crop—rice. But owing to the comparative shortness
of the rice-eating period the amount consumed by each bird must
constitute but a small percentage of the food of the year.
The redwing probably owes its bad reputation as a grain eater to its
superabundance in the great grain-raising regions of the West.
Number of individuals, rather than amount of grain consumed by
each, is here probably the important factor: The cowbird, well
known as a frequenter of roads and barnyards, is not notorious as a
grain eater, and it is probable that the greater part of the 16 percent
of grain found in its stomach is waste. The rusty blackbird has not
been accused of much damage, and in fact is not in this country at
harvest time, so that the greater part of the grain it eats is also proba-
bly waste. The yellowhead has gained an unenviable reputation in
some parts of the West, and in point of harmfulness is reckoned by
the farmers with the redwings, with which it associates. This is not
surprising, as nearly 40 per cent of its food is grain; if it were as
abundant as the redwing, it would probably be a much greater nui-
sance than that species. The crow blackbird, while eating a consider-
For convenience, spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) are classed as insects in
this investigation.
10 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
able quantity of grain, has not been the cause of so much complaint as
the foregoing species, perhaps because of its well-known habit of nest-
ing about farmsteads, where it obtains a large portion of its food
from the barnyards and grain cribs. The boat-tailed grackle is so
local in its distribution that its food habits are familiar to compara-
tively few. It confines its grain eating almost exclusively to corn,
which it appears to eat at every opportunity. Unlike most of the
other species, it also damages fruit. The western Brewer’s black-
bird, with grain constituting more than 60 percent of its food, would
naturally be supposed to be a dangerous neighbor for the grain
grower, and where it has come in contact with the grainfield it has
fulfilled this expectation. The California redwing is confined to a
comparatively small part of the country, and its food habits have not
yet received much attention. It seems almost certain that it must
become a nuisance, but the record of its food is too meager to justify
final conclusions.
The animal food of these nine species of blackbirds must be counted
for the most part in their favor, as the insects eaten are generally
noxious. Only one species (the crow blackbird) shows any special fond-
ness for the valuable predaceous beetles (Carabide), and these amount
to less than 6 percent of its food. The snout-beetles (Rhynchophora),
commonly known as weevils, seem to be specially sought during the
early summer. In the five months from April to August, inclusive,
9 percent of the food of the bobolink consists of these harmful
beetles, a record which is slightly exceeded by the redwing for the
same time. In May they constitute more than one-fourth of the food
of Brewer’s blackbird. As all the members of this group of beetles
are noxious, and as two species that have been identified in great
numbers in the birds’ stomachs are very harmful to forage crops, the
benefit derived from this destruction is obvious. In the consumption
of grasshoppers, Brewer’s blackbird heads the list, more than 16
percent of its food consisting of these pests; while the redwing
(excluding the California bird) stands at the foot, with a little less
than 6 percent. In August, Brewer’s blackbird takes more than 47
percent of its food in grasshoppers, and the rusty blackbird and cow-
bird only a little less. Being mainly terrestrial, the blackbirds do not
naturally come in contact with caterpillars so frequently as they would
if they sought their food upon trees or shrubs; but nevertheless these
insects constitute 13 percent of the food of the bobolink, nearly 6 per-
cent of that of the redwing, and but little less of that of several others.
The other insects eaten are, with an occasional exception, harmful,
and though distributed among several different orders, form a notice-
able percentage of the food. The crustaceans and snails may be con-
sidered neutral.
INTRODUCTION. 1]
In regard to the economic status of the blackbirds, it may be said
that the damage done by the redwings and some other species has
apparently arisen from the excessive number of individuals rather than
from the habits of the species. Thoughtful students of nature have
observed that every race or species has a certain high-water mark of
abundance, beyond which it can not rise without danger of encroaching
upon and injuring other species. This is true of every species, whether
at its normal abundance it be beneficial to man or otherwise. The
exemplification of this principle is most noticeable in the case of
insects, many species of which frequently exceed their ordinary
bounds and spread destruction among crops. But the rule is equally
applicable to birds; however useful they may be in a general way, it
is possible under certain conditions that particular species may become
too numerous. 1
There is no reasonable doubt that in the Mississippi Valley the
redwings and yellowheads, and farther west Brewer’s blackbird, are
much too abundant for the interests of the grain grower. The facili-
ties for nesting afforded by the prairie sloughs and marshes, where
for ages these species have been undisturbed, have given rise to such
immense hordes that they can in a few hours destroy hundreds of
acres of grain, or at least take so much that the remainder is not
worth harvesting. Originally the birds obtained their food from wild
plants, but with the advent of civilized man and the planting of grain-
fields a new source of food was provided. The wild rice (Zczania
aquatica), which was one of their favorite foods, does not ripen till
September, but wheat and oats are ripe from June to August, and are
much more abundant and more easily obtained than any of the wild
seeds. What wonder that the birds at once availed themselves of this
new supply of food spread before them with such a lavish hand! In
the early days of settlement the fight near large marshes to save the
grain from redwinged blackbirds was as fierce as is now the struggle
in the South to save the rice crop from the bobolinks. As the country
has become more thickly settled a greater area of grain is sown and
the damage is relatively less and more widely distributed. With the
further advance of civilization, and the broadening of the area of cul-
tivation, many of the marshes will be drained and the present nesting
places will become arable fields. This will necessarily reduce the
numbers of the birds, and it is almost certain that in time they will
reach the limit at which they are no longer harmful, ax is already the
case in the Eastern States.
Perhaps the most peculiar case presented by any of our birds is that
of the bobolink. Loved and cherished in the North, and there made
the subject of poetry and romance, in the South it is execrated and
destroyed and conceded but one redeeming quality—that its body is
12 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
good toeat. In the North it does much good and practically no harm;
in the South it becomes a veritable pest. Toa person born and reared
in New England and taught to regard this bird somewhat as the Hol-
landers regard the stork,.it is an unwelcome duty to pronounce upon
it a verdict of condemnation, but the facts force the belief that until
some practical method shall be devised to prevent its ravages upon
the rice crop there can be no other conclusion than that the good done
by the bobolink does not in any appreciable measure counterbalance
the harm.
THE BOBOLINK.
(Dolichonyx oryzivorus.)
Within the memory of many persons who have passed the half-
century mark most of the literature of the bird world available to
Americans was that imported from Europe, and stories of the skylark
Fic. 1.—Bobolink.
and of the little robin-redbreast were the amusement of their simple
childhood. They often wondered why they never saw these birds.
But when American writers fully awoke to the beauty and attract-
lveness of their native birds, tales, both in verse and prose, of birds
to be seen cvery day in our own fields and forests began to find their
way into the household. Among these familiar little friends one of
the first to be enshrined in song and story was the bobolink.
THE BOBOLINK. 18
The peculiar difference in the plumage of the two sexes and the
idiosyncrasies of the song of the male have long rendered the bobo-
link a marked bird in its summer home in the Northern States. Few
species show such striking contrasts in the color of the sexes, and few
have songs more unique and whimsical. Even the early settlers
recognized the grotesqueness of some of its notes in their imitative
name of ‘conquiddle.’ In the South it is universally known as the
‘ricebird,’ from its habit of preying upon rice, while in the Middle
States during its southward migration it is called ‘ reedbird.’
The breeding range of the bobolink is confined to the Transition
and Carolinian zones. It occupies the northern part of the United
States and the southern part of the British Provinces, extending from
the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains, and locally beyond to eastern
Idaho and eastern Nevada (see frontispiece). In winter the bird retires
beyond our southern border, ranging southward as far as Brazil. In
the last half of April it enters the United States just as the rice is
sprouting in Southern rice fields, and at once begins to pull up and
feed upon the sprouted kernels. Its stay is short, for this is the
season of reproduction, and it hastens northward to enter upon that
function.
The nesting usually takes place in a meadow or mowing field, not far
from a running brook or spring, and the young are generally upon
the wing in the latter part of July. Up to this time they have been
fed upon insects, but now the whole family, clad in plain clothes (for
~ the male has lost his bright spring garb), betake themselves to swamps
for wild rice, to weed patches for seed, or sometimes to grainfields for
oats; but all the time they move slowly toward the South. The small
flocks unite; all those that breed in the northeastern part of the coun-
try concentrate along the marshes and inlets of the ‘seashore, and the
whole body, constantly growing by accessions from other parts of the
range, moves steadily southward toward the rice fields—an army vaster
than that of Xerxes. The birds begin to arrive upon the rice fields
about August 20, and from that time until the last of them wing their
way to their winter home, nearly two months later, there is no rest for
the unfortunate rice grower. They swarm upon the fields by millions,
and when frightened off at one place at once settle upon another a
short distance away.
In some of the previous publications on the bobolink the havoc
the bird causes among the rice fields of the South does not appear.
Audubon mentions its injury to cornfields in Virginia, Maryland,
and Pennsylvania, and states that its food consists of grubs, cater-
pillars, beetles, grasshoppers, crickets, and ground spiders, and the
seeds of wild oats (Zizania aquatica ?), wheat, barley, rice, and other
grasses.*
10rnith. Biog., Vol. I, pp. 284-286, 1831.
14 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
C. J. Maynard speaks of its feeding in Pennsylvania on a somewhat
peculiar grass which springs up after the wheat is harvested and affords
abundant food for them during the latter part of October.’
Dr. Warren also confines himself to its feeding habits in Pennsyl-
vania. He says:
The food of these birds during their spring sojourn in Pennsylvania is composed
chiefly of different kinds of terrestrial insects, also the seeds of various weeds, grasses,
etc. I have examined the stomach contents of twenty-seven Bobolinks * * *
and found that eighteen had fed exclusively on beetles, larvee, ants and a few earth-
worms; five, in addition to insects and larvee, showed small seeds, and particles of
green vegetable materials, apparently leaves of plants; the four remaining birds
revealed only small black and yellow colored seeds. After the breeding season the
Reedbirds * * * about the middle of August, again make their appearance in
our meadows and grainfields. At this time, although various forms of insects are
abundant, they subsist almost entirely on a vegetable diet. They visit the cornfields
and * * * prey toa more or less extent on the corn; * * * they tear open
the tops of the husk and eat the milky grain. Fields of Hungarian grass are resorted
to and the seed eagerly devoured. The different seeds of weeds and grasses which
grow so luxuriantly in the marshy swamps and meadows are likewise fed upon with
avidity.?
In these statements the bird’s destructiveness in the South is not
considered; but it has been well understood for along time. Mark
Catesby, whose work on the natural history of Carolina contains the
first published general account of the birds of this country, says:
In the beginning of September, while the Grain of Rice is yet soft and milky,
innumerable Flights of these Birds arrive from some remote Parts, to the great detri-
ment of the inhabitants. Anno 1724, an Inhabitant near Ashley river had forty
acres of Rice so devoured by them, that he was in doubt, whether what they had
left, was worth the expense of gathering in.
They are esteemed in Carolina the greatest delicacy of all other Birds. When they
first arrive, they are lean, but in a few days become so excessive fat, that they fly
sluggishly and with difficulty; and when shot, frequently break with the fall. They
continue about three weeks, and retire by that time Rice begins to harden.’
Wilson says these birds are looked upon by the careful planter asa
devouring scourge, and worse than a plague of locusts. In disputing
the assertion that they were unknown in this part of the continent
previous to the introduction of rice plantations he states that the
country produces an abundance of food of which they are no less fond,
including insects of various kinds, grubs, May-flies, and caterpillars,
young ears of indian corn, and seeds of wild rice (Zizania aquatica).
He believes, however, that the introduction of rice, and more particu-
larly the progress of agriculture, in this part of America has greatly
increased their numbers by multiplying their sources of subsistence
fiftyfold within the same extent of country.‘
Birds of Eastern N. A., p. 131, 1881.
* Birds of Pa., revised ed., p. 207, 1890.
* Natural Tistory of Carolina, Vol. I, p. 14, 1731.
‘Am. Ornith., Edinburgh ed., Vol. I, p. 219, 1831.
THE BOBOLINK. 15
It is estimated that the bobolinks, with a little help from the red-
wings, cause an annual loss of $2,000,000 to the rice growers of the
South." Much of this loss is indirect, arising from the necessity of
maintaining a corps of men and boys as ‘bird-minders,’ who patrol
the fields from morning till night, firing guns or cracking whips to
frighten the birds from the ripening crop. Even then it is impossible
to save all the rice, and it often happens that some acres on the bor-
ders of the uncultivated marsh where the birds resort are so badly
eaten that they are not worth harvesting.
As a rule, the shooting is only to frighten the birds, as the use
of shot would cause as much harm to the rice as is done by the birds.
The amount of powder consumed in this way is enormous. It is not
uncommon to use 100 pounds per annum, and one planter who culti-
vates a large plantation uses 2,500 pounds in the course of a year.
Col. John Screven, of Savannah, Ga., in writing of the ravages of
the ricebird (bobolink), says:
Its invasions are ruinous to fields on which its flocks may settle, especially if the
grain is in palatable condition and in fields adjacent to marshes convenient for
ambush or retreat. Bird-minders, armed with muskets and shotguns, endeavor by
discharges of blank cartridges to keep the birds alarmed and to drive them from the
field. Small shot are also fired among them, and incredible numbers are killed; but
all such efforts will not prevent great waste of grain, amounting to a loss of large
portions of a field—sometimes, indeed, to its entire loss. The voracity of the birds
seems so intense that fear is secondary to it, and they fly, when alarmed, from one
portion of the field to another, very little out of gunshot, and immediately settle down
to their banquet. * * * The preventives in use against the ravages of the rice-
birds have been already suggested, but they are palliative only, applied at great
expense, and without commensurate results. * * * Inshort, no effort yet tried
consistent with reasonable economy will drive the ricebird from the field or afford
any well-founded promise of their reduction to harmless numbers.
A more specific case of damage is that of a field mentioned by Mr.
J. A. Hayes, jr., of Savannah, Ga., which consisted of 125 acres of rice
that matured when birds were most plentiful, and which, in spite of
18 bird-minders and 11 half kegs of gunpowder, yielded only 18 bushels
per acre of inferior rice, although it had been estimated to yield +5
bushels.
Capt. William Miles Hazzard, of Annandale, 8. C., says:
During the nights of August, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, and 24th, millions of these birds
make their appearance and settle in the rice fields. From August 21st to September
25th our every effort is to save the crop. Men, boys and women are posted with
guns and ammunition to every four or five acres, and shoot daily an average of about
one quart of gunpowder to the gun. This firing commences at first dawn’of day,
and is kept up until sunset. After all this expense and trouble our loss of rice per
acre seldom falls under five bushels, and if from any cause there is a check to the
crop during its growth which prevents the grain from being hard but in a milky
condition, the destruction of the rice is complete—not paying to cut and bring out of
1 Report of Department of Agriculture for 1886, p. 247.
16 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES,
the field. We have tried every plan to keep these pests off our crop at less expense
and manual labor than we now incur, and have been unsuccessful. Our present
mode is expensive, imperfect and thoroughly unsatisfactory, yet it is the best we
can do. ‘
Mr. R. Joseph Lowndes, of Annandale, S. C., in writing of the bob-
olink and redwing, says:
I think I am in bounds when I say that one-fourth, if not one-third of the [rice].
crop of this river [the Santee] is destroyed by birds from the time the seed is put
into the land till the crops are threshed out and put in the barns—I shoot out about.
100 kegs of powder every September, with a fair quantity of shot, say 30 to 50 bags,
and have killed as high as 150 dozeninaday. In the bird season it takes every
man and boy on the plantation to mind these birds. This work has to go on from
daylight till dark in any and all weathers and at great expense for six weeks in the
fall before the rice is ripe enough for the sickle, and then on till we can get it out of
the fields. These birds, if not carefully minded, will utterly destroy a crop of rice
in two or three days.
Mr. A. X. Lucas, of McClellanville, S. C., says:
The annual depredations of the birds are in my opinion equal in this section to the
value of the rent of the land—to say nothing of the expense of minding the birds.
Many similar reports of the bobolink’s damage to rice have been
received by the Biological Survey from Southern rice growers. So
destructive are the attacks of these birds that it is necessary to plant
the rice previous to their coming in the spring, so that it can be under
water when they arrive, and then to plant another lot when they have
passed on to the north. This method is adopted not only to avoid the
full extent of the ravages of the birds in the spring, but also that the
first lot may mature in the fall before the birds return, and the second
after they have passed on to their winter home. But it frequently
happens that one of the crops is ‘in the milk’ when the birds arrive
in August, in which case it is almost impossible to save it from total
destruction.
Mr. Allen C. Zard, of White Hill, 8. C., says that when rice is so
planted as to ‘meet the birds,’ that is, to be in just the right stage of
maturity when they arrive, and they come in full force, they will
destroy the whole crop in spite of powder and shot or anything else.
As a sample of actual loss, the following statement, furnished by
Colonel Screven, gives his account with the bobolink at Savannah, Ga.,
for the year 1885:
Cosiobaminiunition aii es cca) hated el ded oe $245, 50
Wragesiof bird: minders 22. oc og ioe aaanjortin ede ieee els be cia 300. 00
Rice destroyed, say 400 bushels .............--.------ ee 500. 00
$1, 045. 50
Colonel Screven cultivated in that year 465 acres of tidal land, so
that he has estimated a loss of less than 1 bushel of rice to the acre,
while most of the rice growers estimate the loss at from 4 to 5 bushels.
THE BOBOLINK. 17
Captain Hazzard states that in cultivating from 1,200 to 1,400 acres
of rice, he has paid as much as $1,000 for bird-minding in one spring.
In addition to the use of firearms, various other methods of avoid-
ing the ravages of the ricebirds have been tried, but with, at best,
indifferent success. To prevent the birds from pulling up the sprouted
seed in spring the device of coating it with coal tar has been used,
as is effectively practiced in the case of corn. But the method of rice
culture is very different from that of corn. As soon as the rice is
sown it is covered with water, which remains on the field until the
germination of the seed, a period of variable length. The soaking in
water so affects the tar coating that it no longer protects the grain,
and when the water is withdrawn the birds at once attack the seed.
Moreover, it is stated by Captain Hazzard that some birds, including
the ricebird, hull the grain before eating it, an assertion apparently
corroborated by the absence of hulls in the bobolink stomachs exam-
ined that contained rice. (When seeds are swallowed by birds, the
hulls usually remain longer in the stomachs than the kernels.) Hence,
on this account also, the tar coating would probably have no prevent-
ive effect. Another method is to attach small flags to stakes or to fly
kites over the fields. Looking-glasses have also been suspended in the
same way, but all these devices soon cease to be effective. Placing
pieces of refuse meat on poles about the fields to attract the buzzards
has been tried; the ricebirds mistake the buzzards for hawks and
avoid the fields over which they are flying. But the scheme is effective
only for a short time, as the birds soon become accustomed to the
presence of the buzzards and pay no further attention to them.
These facts and figures are presented for the consideration of the
people of the Northern States, to whom the name ‘bobolink’ suggests
only poetry and sentiment, and by whom the birds themselves are
looked upon as almost sacred, and are rigidly protected. It is not
probable that any farmer in the North will for a moment contend that
he receives from the bobolinks that nest upon his farm so much benefit
that he would be willing in return to share the losses inflicted upon his
Southern brothers by the birds.
Insect pests ravage the crops of the whole country. No section is
exempt from damage. Each crop has its destroyers, against which
human energy and science must contend with whatever success they
may, and in most cases some effectual remedy has been devised. But
the case of the attacks of the bobolink upon the rice crop of the South
is unique and is probably the result of a peculiar combination of
causes,
As before stated, these birds are inhabitants of open fields; mead-
ows and prairies form their ideal breeding grounds. So much do they
avoid woods and groves that they will seldom nest in a well-grown
orchard, even if other accompaniments are agreeable. At the time
3074—No. 18——2
18 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
America was first settled, the whole northeastern part of the country
must have presented but few localities, and those of limited area,
suited to their wants. When the great forests of New England and
New York were cleared away and transformed into farms with exten-
sive areas of mowing land intersected with springs and brooks, the
bobolinks were not slow to avail themselves of these new opportunities
and soon colonized the whole. At the same time the southeastern
coast region was also brought under cultivation, and the tidal and
river lands were devoted to the raising of rice, thus furnishing the
food needed for the augmented numbers, as noted by Wilson. As
settlement, with its attendant clearing away of forests, spread west-
ward, suitable nesting areas were continually added to those already
created, and the birds had abundant opportunity for great increase in
numbers.
Since the bobolinks pass the winter in South America, the southern
coast of Florida naturally presents to most of them the point of depart-
ure for the long sea flight to their winter homes. Before reaching this
spot, however, they stop to rest and feed in the rice fields of the South-
east, where they remain and recruit their exhausted energies prepara-
tory to final migration. A small contingent, representing those that
have nested in the extreme western portion of their range, migrate
directly down the Mississippi Valley to the rice fields of Louisiana.
When the birds arrive from the North they are in poor condition,
having been debilitated by the exertion of reproduction, but they at
once begin to recuperate with the abundant food furnished by the
rice, soon become very fat, and, after a few weeks’ rest, are able to
safely resume the southern journey. On the return migration the con-
ditions are similar; the birds arrive from their winter home tired out
with their long flight, and find the fields either newly sown with rice
or else with the tender blade just appearing above the ground. In
each case there is an abundant supply of food,and they are soon in
condition to pursue the journey to their northern breeding ground.
Here we see the two causes which have combined to bring about all
the trouble between the rice planters and the bobolinks: (1) The fact
that the species has probably much increased through the extension of
its northern breeding ground, and (2) the fact that the rice fields lie
directly in the path of migration, and afford a convenient place for
rest and recuperation before and after the flight across the sea. It is
almost certain that if the rice fields were far outside of the lines of
migration, they would never be molested. It is probable that long
before America was discovered the bobolinks gathered in the marshes
on the southeastern coast and ted upon wild rice and other wild plants
previous to departure for their winter home. Cultivation of the land
introduced a more abundant supply of food in the South just at the
time it afforded a great increase in nesting area in the North.
THE BOBOLINK. 19
In view of the fact that the food habits of the bird during migration
are well known, attention has been directed chiefly in the present
laboratory investigation to the character of the food taken on the
breeding grounds. Of 291 stomachs examined (see p. 72), 231 were
obtained from various points in the North, embracing nineteen States,
from Massachusetts to Montana, the District of Columbia, and Onta-
rio. They were taken in the five months from May to September,
inclusive, but the majority of the September birds whose stomachs
have been examined may be regarded as belated migrants. The food
for these five months was found to consist of 57.1 percent animal mat-
ter and 42.9 percent vegetable. This result would be rather surprising
but for the fact that only two of the May and nine of the September
stomachs were collected in the rice fields. The general character of
the food during the five months is shown in the accompanying diagram
(fig. 2).
. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. i
1005 . 5 PORASEASS <T <T
AN WAS S SS SASS ANNES ALYY SN IAQN SYN SQ QN NOE
UN ASSAY
3 CORRG SSSA AAA QQ awd 6
KE RFAT RNC
ah\\ NRE G,,
NW WQS
= AAS NN NENTS
NS NE AQQ °° ws WN
70 BANN <S
50
INJURIOUS=—HINSECTS = KER SEED
40 =< 40
3 =N 30
20 = 20
10 40
WL
|_E=uSEFUL=INSECTS = ae
Fig. 2,—Diagram showing proportions of animal and vegetable food of bobolink in each month from
May to September inclusive. (The figures in the margins indicate percentages.)
Of the insect food, as determined by the examination, beetles con-
stitute nearly 19 per cent. Predaceous species (Carabide), which are,
broadly considered, useful insects, are represented only by a trace;
snout-beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), amount to 8.9 percent, and
in May to 20.8 percent; and other beetles, of various families, and all
20 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
of a more or less harmful character, make up the rest of the coleop-
terous food. Hymenoptera, represented by ants and some wasps, and
by many of the small parasitic species, form 7.6 percent of the food,
and were found mostly in May and July stomachs. The bobolink eats
more of these useful parasitic Hymenoptera than any other bird whose
food habits have thus far been investigated, although it should be stated
that examinations of flycatchers and other birds now in course of
completion indicate that it will soon lose its position at the head of the
list. Caterpillars are apparently a favorite food. They form 17.6
percent of the May food, and rise to 28.1 percent in June, after
which they gradually decrease, averaging in the five months 13 per
cent. Those eaten are mostly of the species known as cutworms, and
include the well-known Wephelodes violans. Grasshoppers constitute
11.5 percent of the food, and are eaten principally in June and July,
when they amount to 23.2 and 25.8 percent respectively. This is
unusual. There seems to be a pretty general law that all birds, no
matter what their food habits may be during the rest of the year, eat
grasshoppers in August, just as the human race eats certain delicacies
in their respective seasons. But in August, when with most birds the
grasshopper season is at its height, the bobolinks begin to drop their
animal diet and eat vegetable food in preparation for the rice season
in the South. Besides the insects already mentioned, a few bugs and
flies are eaten, and also some spiders and myriapods.
Of the vegetable food, 8.3 percent consists of oats, most of which
are consumed in August, when they reach 31.4 percent of the whole
food for the month. Besides oats and rice, little grain is eaten.
Wheat and barley were found in a few stomachs, and buckwheat in
one, Corn was not found. Weed seeds, such as barngrass, panic-
grass, smartweed, and ragweed, are eaten to the extent of 16.2 per-
cent of the food, and like oats are taken mostly in August, when they
amount to 86,9 per cent. Various other articles of vegetable food
go to make up the diet of the bobolinks, while they remain in the
North, the most important of which is wild rice, which seems to be
the favorite food during the journey to the rice plantations. This
plant is as aquatic as its cultivated relative, and abounds along all the
bays, estuaries, and rivers of the Atlantic coast, where it affords food
for millions of birds of many species in the latter part of August and
during September and later. It was originally, no doubt, the princi-
pal food of the bobolinks at this season, and remained so until the
advent of civilization introduced something that the birds found even
more to their taste. Of the two birds taken in the rice fields in May,
one had eaten 55 percent of insects and 45 percent of rice, with @
trace of weed seed, while the other had eaten 50 percent of insects,
25 percent of rice, and 25 percent of weed seed. Of the insects, 41
percent in one stomach and 30 in the other were snout-beetles (Rhyn-
chophora). The remainder were harmful beetles of other kinds and
THE BOBOLINK. 21
caterpillars, except 3 percent of predaceous beetles (Carabide) in
one stomach and 15 percent of parasitic Hymenoptera (Ichneumonide)
in the other. Of the nine birds shot in the rice fields in September,
one had eaten 15 percent of insects and another 90 percent. The
other seven had taken no animal matter, but one had eaten 10, and
another 70 percent of weed seed (umew). All the other food, about
79 percent of the whole, was rice.
SUMMARY.
In a summary of its food habits this species must be treated differ-
ently from other birds. It is not enough merely to sum up the
noxious insects and weeds destroyed and set them on one side of the
account, with the valuable grain eaten on the other, and then strike
a balance; though even in this case we should probably decide against
the bird, or at least be forced to say, as of the redwing, that its harm-
fulness is due to an excess of individuals. The case of the bobolink
is peculiar. If it preyed upon all kinds of grain or upon any one
kind whose cultivation was more general, like wheat or oats, its
ravages would be more widely distributed and would consequently
fall less heavily upon the individual cultivator; and the damage,
although the same, would be more evenly divided and so less appre-
ciated. But instead of this, the attacks of the whole species are
directed upon a single crop, and one which is grown over a very
limited area and by comparatively few cultivators. Again, unlike
most species that remain in the South during the winter and subsist
to a great extent upon scattered waste grain, the bobolink makes its
attacks at planting time and at or immediately before the full tide
of harvest—just when it is capable of doing the greatest damage.
The redwing, although it eats rice at harvest, remains through the
winter, eating the waste rice, which, if left upon the field, would
become what is called ‘volunteer’ rice—an undesirable element of
the crop; but the bobolink in its relations to the rice field has not a
single redeeming trait. What aggravates the case is the fact that the
birds do not need the rice. There is no reason to suppose that if rice
culture were entirely abandoned there would be any diminution in the
number of bobolinks. It is altogether probable that if this source of
food were withdrawn there would be enough other seed-bearing plants
to supply their needs. Bird fogd is almost always superabundant.
It is only under very exceptional circumstances that birds suffer
seriously from hunger. :
What, then, shall we say of the bobolink? In the life of the writer
this bird is associated with some of the happiest and brightest hours of
childhood, youth, and maturity. A sunny June morning in rural New
England would hardly be complete without the bubbling, gushing,
rollicking melody of the bobolink in the mowing lot. But hard
22 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
facts can not be set aside by poetry and sentiment. The picturesque-
ness of the bobolink and the melody of its song do not offset the financial
loss and harassing care of.the Southern rice growers. As the case
stands at present the harm done by the bird far outweighs its benefits;
but it is to be hoped that science may devise some means by which
the rice growers may be relieved from some portion, if not all, of the
labor and expense now incident to saving their crops from its devas-
tations.
The following table shows the percentage of each of the principai
kinds of food for each month from May to September.
Food of the bobolink.
[NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: May, 52; June, 41; July, 45; August, 103; September, 50. Total, 291.}
Food. May. June. July. August, i Average.
ARITA: Percent. | Percent. | Percent. | Percent. | Percent. | Percent.
Predaceous beetles ........-..--- 1.0 DE |ieiciewisresecein BEG: | hciecaronciecn 0.6
May-beetle family............... 12.1 LD? lees sey ATED aanasparerere 2.7
Snout-beetles........... a 20.8 9.6 9.6 2.5 20) 9.0
Other beetles .. 8.6 12.8 10.7 1.4 G@1(° &F
Wasps, ants, ete stats sie 15.5 5.0 13.6 3.5 0.3 7.6
Caterpillars:....ccs.ecsccosennencis 17.6 28.1 15.3 2.3 1.8 13.0
Grasshoppers ..-..--..-...-2.--5- Tr, 23.2 25.8 6.0 2.5 11.5
Other insects oe 3.5 9.0 8.4 2.0 0.2 4.6
Spiders and myriapods........-. 2.8 2.5 BSE 10): era ee 1.4
Total animal food ......... 81.9 92.4 84.5 19.4 ak 67.1
VEGETABLE.
Oatsiacniassceis BFS! | esiewteerticia 3.4 31.4 1.6 8.3
Other grain. . nial LOT | teesysrarerdeoronit 0.1 4.3 14.6 4,1
WGEd: SCCOS cn cirerertusnmesanes 10.0 6.4 9.6 36.9 18,1 16,2
Other vegetable food............ 11 1.2 2.4 8.0 58.6 14.8
Total vegetable food ...... 18.1 7.6 15.5 80.6 92.9 42.9
1Tr, = trace.
THE COWBIRD.
(Molothrus ater.)
Few rural sights are more suggestive of quiet enjoyment than @
group of cows lying at ease in a sunny pasture calmly chewing the
cud, while on their backs a small flock of cowbirds are resting or walk-
ing slowly about searching for food. Why the birds choose such
companions is difficult to explain, as there does not appear to be any
special relation between them, but their association with domesticated
animals is a matter of common observation, and has given rise to their ,
popular name. Both Audubon and Wilson ascribe the habit to the
desire of the birds to feed upon the intestinal worms they find in the |
cow droppings.‘ But stomach examination, however, entirely fails
'Ornith. Biog., Vol. I, p. 498, 1831. Am. Ornith., Edinburgh ed., Vol. I, PB
209, 1831.
THE COWBIRD. 293
to bear out this supposition. The insects that annoy the animals do
not constitute any considerable portion of the cowbird’s food, nor are
the seeds upon which it subsists found to any particular extent where
cattle range. As the cowbird is abundant in the Mississippi Valley
and on the Great Plains, it would be interesting to know if it for-
merly associated on familiar terms with the buffalo, and such would
seem to be the case, as Major Bendire gives ‘ buffalo bird’ as one of
its former names.?
The cowbird ranges from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains and
sparingly beyond nearly to the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico
‘northward into southern Canada. It breeds throughout its range,
except in the immediate vicinity of the Gulf.
In winter most of the birds leave the United States and pass into
northern Mexico, but a few remain in the Southern States and strag-
glers may occasionally be found farther north. The southward
movement begins in September, and by November 1 the birds have
left the Northern States. On their return in spring they appear in
the Middle States in March, and by the first week in May have coy-
ered their whole summer range. Their great center of abundance is
the Mississippi Valley, where they are among the commonest species
and second to few in point of numbers. It is a well-known fact that
the cowbird, like the European cuckoo, but unlike most other birds,
builds no nest for its eggs and young, but saddles the labor of rearing
its progeny upon other species into whose nests it introduces its eges.
The birds it selects for this imposition are mostly species smaller than
itself, and such as nest in bushes and hedges, or near the borders of
woodland; for as the cowbirds inhabit the open country they will not
penetrate the depths of the forest. Most of the birds thus imposed
upon accept the charge, however reluctantly, and rear the intruder.
As the cowbird’s egg usually hatches before the eggs of the owner of
the nest, the young cowbird begins at once to grow and crowds out,
or prevents further incubation of, the other eggs; or, if they are
hatched, so monopolizes the food supply that the young soon perish of
starvation. This has been observed many times, but whether it is the
universal rule has not yet been demonstrated. It is supposed that a
female cowbird deposits but one egg in a nest, and that where more
than one strange egg is found they are the product of different birds.
As many as seven cowbird eggs have been found in one nest. A few
birds actively resent the intrusion of the strange egg, and either
desert the nest entirely, or build up its sides and lay a new floor,
beneath which the unwelcome present is left to decay. This device
has, in some cases, been used twice in the same nest, a three-storied
structure resulting, in the upper story of which the rightful occupants
were finally reared. The sparrows, warbiers, and flycatchers are the
1 Rept. U. 8. National Museum for 1893, p. 591, 1895.
g4 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
species most frequently imposed upon, but occasionally larger ones are
victimized. Major Bendire enumerates 90 species in whose nests the
cowbird’s eggs have been found. The largest of these are the mourn-
ing dove (Zenaidura macroura) and the meadowlark (Sturnella magna.)!
That this parasitic habit is injurious to other species there is no
reason to doubt, but the extent of the injury has never been
accurately determined.
It was partly with the expectation of finding some points in the
cowbird’s character to offset, to some extent, its parasitism that an
investigation of its food habits was undertaken. The subject of its
food has not attracted much attention from writers upon ornithology;
for no great destruction of grain crops has been reported against the
cowbird, nor has it ever been accused of preying appreciably upon fruit
or garden produce. Dr. B. H. Warren, one of the few ornithologists
to make a detailed examination of its food, says:
The food of these birds consists of seeds, grains, berries and insects. Although
Cowbirds subsist to a small extent on wheat and rye, they never, I think, * * *
attack these cereals when growing. The seeds of clover, timothy, fox-tailed grass,
bitter-weed, etc., are included in their bill of fare; blackberries, huckleberries, cedar
berries, wild cherries and the summer grape (Vitis xstivalis, Mz.) are eaten. They
subsist to a very great extent, however, on insects; large numbers of grasshoppers,
beetles, grubs and ‘‘ worms’’ are eagerly devoured.”
Maj. Bendire enumerates, as among the articles of cowbird diet,
ragweed, smartweed, foxtail or pigeon grass, wild rice and the smaller
species of grains, berries of different kinds, grasshoppers, beetles,
ticks, flies, and other insects, worms, etc., and adds: ‘‘ Taking its food
alone into consideration it does perhaps more good than harm.”*
A collection of 544 stomachs has been received by the Biological
Survey from twenty States ranging from Maine south to Virginia
and west to Kansas and the Dakotas, and also from Tennessee, Georgia,
Texas, Arizona, the District of Columbia, and Canada (see p. 73).
Every month in the year is represented, though only three stomachs
were taken in January. The total food found in these stomachs was
dividedas follows: Animal matter, 22.3 percent; vegetable, 77.7 percent.
The proportions in different months are shown by the accompanying
diagram (fig. 3). Only a little more than 3 percent ef the stomach
contents was sand or vravel—a very small amount when the large
proportion of vegetable food is considered. The animal food consists “ ©
almost entirely of insects und spiders, a few snails forming the excep-
tions. The insects comprise wasps and ants (Hymenoptera), bugs
(Hemiptera), a few flies (Diptera), beetles (Coleoptera), grasshoppers
(Orthoptera), and caterpillars (Lepidoptera). Wasps, ants, and flies,
"Rept. U. 8. National Museum for 1893, p. 594, 1895.
* Birds of Pennsylvania, revised ed., p. 210, 1890.
i : Life Histories of N. A. Birds, II, Special Bul. No. 3, U.S. National Museum, p. 435,
895.
THE COWBIRD. 95
especially the last, are the insects that might be supposed to attract
the birds to the cattle, but the stomachs do not show that many are
eaten, for altogether they amount to less than 8 percent of the food,
and the wasps and ants are the most important constituents of this
percentage. The wasps are probably picked from flowers while
gathering honey and the ants are collected from the ground. The
destruction of the latter is a decided benefit and the former can be
spared. Hemiptera are represented in the stomach by stink-bugs
(Pentatomide), leaf-hoppers (Jasside), and one cicada. While some
of the pentatomids are useful insects, because of their habit of prey-
ing upon others of a noxious character, many of them are serious
is JAN.| FEB.| MAR) APR.) MAY [JUNE/JULY | AUG.|] SEPT] OCT.| NOV.| DEC.
4 .
100
90) 90.
80 80.
f
uN LEER REEEK OORS bee
30
40
N
s0\\\ \
NN
= NIMAL=—F 00D
20
20
10 10
AN \\i
Fic.3.—Diagram showing proportions of animal and vegetable food of cowbird in each month of the
year. (The figures in the left margins indicate percentages.)
pests; so on the whole it is probable that birds do little harm by eating
them. The so-called leaf-hoppers live to a great extent upon grass
and might very properly be called grasshoppers were it not that that
name has been appropriated for other insects. Those eaten are so
little that it would require a number of them to fill the stomach of
evenasmall bird. All are harmful, and some, as for example those
that feed on the grapevine and rose, are very injurious. Cowbirds
eat a great many of these leaf-hoppers, which in some stomachs amount
to 60 percent of the whole contents. The greater number are eaten
in June and July, but the aggregate for the year is small, about 14
percent.
26 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES,
Beetles form 5.3 percent of the year’s food. The predaceous ones,
or those that prey to a greater or less extent on other insects (Cara-
bide and a few Cicindelide), although living on the ground and
often found by cowbirds, are rarely eaten, the aggregate for the year
being about three-fourths of one percent of the whole food. Of the
eight families of beetles represented in the food, only one group, the
snout-beetles or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to any noticeable
extent, and these amount to little more than 2 percent of the food of
the year, although in June they rise to more than 9 percent. They
belong mostly to the families of scarred snout-beetles (Otiorhynchide),
curculios (Curculionide), and ‘bill bugs’ (Calandride), and as they
are all potentially harmful and most of them actual pests, their
destruction is a benefit to agriculture. The rest of the beetle food,
comprising species that are all more or less injurious, amounts toa
little more than 2 percent, and is taken chiefly in April, May, and
June.
Grasshoppers appear to be the cowbirds’ favorite animal food, and
compose almost half of the insect food, or 11 percent of the whole.
They are first taken in March, when the birds return from their winter
home, reach a maximum of 45.1 percent in August, and decrease to
6.2 percent in November. This is a large record, compared with
those of most other birds whose food has been accurately determined.
It is much greater than those of the crow, crow blackbird, or red-
winged blackbird, all noted ground feeders, and is exceeded only by
those of the meadowlark and a few of other families.
Caterpillars are eaten to some extent in every month of the cow-
birds’ stay in the North, but do not constitute a very important element
of the food, averaging only a little more than 2 percent of the whole.
The greatest number, amounting to a little more than 10 percent, are
eaten in May. The notorious army worm (Leucania wnipuncta) was
identified in four stomachs, and was probably contained in many more,
but not in a condition to be recognized. One small moth and one
ephemerid were also found.
Spiders were found in many stomachs, but not in large numbers.
They seem to be eaten wherever they are found, but probably only ter-
restrial species are taken. Snails were found in a number of stomachs.
Eggshells occurred in several stomachs, but in such small quantities
as to preclude the probubility that they were taken from the nests of
other birds. When young birds are hatched the parents remove the
eggshells and drop them at some distance from the nest, where,
doubtless, they are found and eaten by other birds, for bits of eggshell
appear more or less frequently in the stomachs of nearly every species
examined.
The vegetable food of the cowbird exceeds the animal food, both in
quantity and variety. When searching the ground about barnyards
or roads the bird is evidently looking for scattered seeds rather than
insects, though the latter are probably taken whenever found. Various
THE COWBIRD. DF.
other substances are also eaten, but they are mostly of the same gen-
eral character, such as hard seeds of grasses or weeds, with but little
indication of fruit pulp or other soft vegetable matter. The following
table shows the various grains and seeds identified, with the number
of stomachs in which they were contained:
Vegetable substances found in stomachs of cowbirds.
Grain: Stomachs. | Weeds—Continued. Stomachs.
COT. costo tie owes ede 56 Pennyroyal (Trichostema dicho-
WHEE ons ve teva neler see weik 20 LONI) lose he cen csteeeceis 2
Oats s.2'i's sarcaewntend acisieacis 102 Mouse-ear chickweed (Ceras-
Buckwheats.<ccccctccws's ediece els 1 UNG a ae miseteist teen setae 2
Fruit: Plantain (Plantago).....-.-.--- a
Blueberry ( Vaccinium) ......-. 1 Sunflower (Helianthus)......... 8
Raspberry (Rubus) .......-.... 4 Gromwell (Lithospermum)...-.. 4
Forage: Blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium
Clover ( Trifolium).......-.-.-- 8 bermudiana).....---.--..---- 1
Timothy (Phleum).-..-.------- 8 Barngrass (Chetochloa) ........ 265
Sorghum (Andropogon sorghum). 2 Panic-grass (Panicum) .....-.--- 133
Weeds: Joint-grass (Paspalum) ......--- 22
Ragweed (Ambrosia)..........- 176 Yard-grass (Hleusine indica).... 2
Knotweed (Polygonum) -.-.-.--- 49 Unidentified (mostly unknown
Sorrel (Rumer).......--..----- 37 grass seeds) ....-..---..---.- 57
Thistle (Carduus).......------- 1 | Miscellaneous:
Amaranth (Amaranthus) --.-.-- 11 Mast: seceGeeaustwecatooe nee es 1
Mustard (Brassica nigra)...--.- 4 eat gall sc cceccascese yeas oe 2s 2
Chickweed (Alsine).-....------ 9 Rubbish snceusuusesseeehs veers 5
Oats are apparently the favorite grain with the cowbird, as they
were found in 102 stomachs, a record which exceeds the total of those
containing either wheat or corn. They first appear in March, when
12.9 per cent are eaten, evidently waste grain picked up in the stubble-
fields, highways, and barnyards, except in the southern part of the
country, where sowing may take place as early as this month. Oats
constitute less than 2 per cent in April, nearly 8 percent in May
(probably partly made up of grain from newly sown fields), 3.7 in
June, 25.1 in July, 31.5 in August, 19.4 in September, and after that
decrease rapidly and reach zero before the Ist of November. The
average consumption for all the months of the year is 8.6 percent.
Corn was found in 56 stomachs, but the irregular manner in which it
is distributed through the food of the year indicates that it is not a
favored diet. The record for January, which shows a little more than
33 per cent, is based on only 3 stomachs, and so can not be considered
very reliable. In any case the corn eaten must have been scattered
grain, unless it was some that had been left in the shock over winter.
Even in October, when corn is abundant everywhere, it is scarcely
touched. Only 1 bird out of 70 taken in that month had eaten any,
and in this single instance it amounted to only 6 percent of the entire
food. In the other months the quantity ranges downward to zero, but
in such an erratic manner as to indicate that it is never sought, but
merely eaten when found and when better food is not at hand. The
28 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
aggregate for the year is 6.5 percent. Wheat was found in only 20
stomachs, and amounts to 1.4 percent of the year’s food. Like corn,
its distribution is irregular and does not appear to have any relation to
the seasons. Itis probable that it is a purely accidental food, eaten
only when nothing better is to be had. The greatest quantity (4.8 per-
cent) was taken in September. A single kernel of buckwheat was
found in 1 stomach.
Grain as a whole amounts to 16.5 percent, or practically one-sixth
of the food of the year; but a consideration of its distribution as given
above leads to the conclusion that a large portion of this, probably
one-half, is waste. In comparing the record of the cowbird with that of
the red-winged blackbird, the cowbird’s shows the greater consumption
of grain; that is, 16.5, as against 13.9 for the redwing. In view of this
fact it would seem somewhat strange, were not a large proportion of
the grain consumed waste, that no complaints should have been made
against the cowbird on the score of grain eating. It is possible, of
course, that observers have not always distinguished the two species
in the field, as male cowbirds do not differ greatly in color or size from
female redwings—and their great abundance in the West lends some
color to this supposition. But it seems far more probable that they
gather a very important part of the grain found in their stomachs in
their gleaning in roads, about barnyards, and wherever cattle are
found, and so do far less actual damage to growing crops than the
redwings.
Fruit forms an insignificant part of the food. Some traces of what
may have been fruit pulp were found, and a few seeds of raspberries
were in each of 4 stomachs, and some blueberry seeds in one; but as
some of the raspberry seeds were in stomachs collected in April they
were evidently eaten as dry seeds, and this may have been true of all.
The seeds of plants classified as weeds in the list of vegetable food
constitute by far the most important part of the diet. They form the
largest item of food in every month except July and August, and are
of importance in every month. Beginning with 64.4! percent in
January and 95.5 percent in February, they slowly decrease to 16.6
percent in August, but rise suddenly to 58.1 percent in September,
attain their maximum of 97 percent in October, and end with 96.8
percent in December. They constitute practically the whole food of °
the winter months. The aggregate for the year is 60 percent of all
the food, or more than three-fourths of the vegetable food, and more
than three and a half times the total amount of grain. Barngrass and
ragweed are especially well known as troublesome weeds throughout
the country wherever field crops are cultivated, and these two consti-
tute the great bulk of this food. Barngrass seed was found in 265
stomachs and ragweed in~176. Panicums, while ostensibly forage
plants, are often troublesome weeds. Their seeds were found in 133
‘Based on 3 stomachs. A larger number would probably greatly increase the
percentage,
‘HE COWBIRD. 29
stomachs, which shows that the birds relish them. Knotweed, smart-
weed, and other species of the genus Polygonum, all noted weeds, were
found in 49 stomachs. The other items of the weed-seed food are eaten
to a greater or less extent, but not by so many birds as are those
specifically mentioned. Of the 544 stomachs only 2 were filled with
grain alone, while 94 contained nothing but weed seed. The amount
of weed seed destroyed by birds in a single year in the United States
isimmense, and it is evident that the cowbird is one of the noteworthy
agents by which the already overflowing tide of noxious weeds is kept
within its present limits.
SUMMARY.
In summing up the results of the investigation, the following points
may be considered as fairly established: (1) Twenty per cent of the
cowbirds’ food consists of insects, which are either harmful or annoy-
ing. (2) Sixteen per cent is grain, the consumption of which may
be considered a loss, though it is practically certain that half of this
is waste. (3) More than 50 per cent consists of the seeds of noxious
weeds, whose destruction is a positive benefit to the farmer. (4) Fruit
is practically not eaten.
The following table shows the percentage of each of the principal]
kinds of food for every month in the year:
Food of the cowbird.
[NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January,3: February,10; March, 18; April, 83; May, 99; June, 53;
July,57; August, 38; September, 79; October, 70; November, 23; December, 11. Total, 544.]
5 B g s
cs re re a a B= | SS g
Food. g Se | ast é % ga | 2 E = be
| q 2 m E g 2 2 O Q 3 a
ape ok oe ge eo ae gee comma
o> i]
f@le/sei/<¢4)/se2!16)/5 14/8 |}oé/)/2e4/]4) «
ANIMAL, Per- | Per- | Per-| Per-| Per-| Per- | Per-| Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-| Per-
Predaceous bee-
Te veccccntrc nea meceudluvemaslyaoase HP |) BE9e) 164), 19S 2. ohewcedeleeeenel a ghee 0.4] 0.7
Other beetles..... 0.3] 24] 24/10.2/123/165] 81] 1.7] 08] 02 )1Tr. |... 4.6
Grasshoppers 2.9 | 5.8] 10.7 | 20.3 | 29.7] 45.1] 94] 1.8] 62 ]...-.. 11.0
Caterpillars .. 24 | Bros dors: |) Sesh Bear 058d Ons) | Bes teaser ewes 28
Other insects 1.0} O78) 204) 9:8) 722) Qab | 202) Dr, Olan) Os84 258
Spiders and myr-
1spods.. cccssceeloscce 0:23) sce 2.5] 22] 4.8] 29] 0.9] 0.3] 2Tr. |......).222.. ca
Otheranimal food|......|...... O2 |). Od: | v9 | OESHl 0-5 || HOsd TE, [ese eel secsenceeess 0.4
Total animal
food ........ 2.3] 4.5] 8.6] 25.7 | 42.7] 59.1] 51.9 | 50.5] 18.0] 1.9] 6.3] 0.7 | 22.3
VEGETABLE,
Grains sesseecers BOER crs 31.3, 7.1 | 15.7] 12.9 | 27.2} 81.7] 289); LI} 61) 25] 16.5
Weed seeds....... 64.4 | 95.5 | 49.1 | 66.1 | 41.5 | 28.0 | 19.2 | 16.6 | 58.1 | 97.0 | 87.6 | 96.8 | 60.0
Other vegetable
TOO occu seaskt asus |tanees F450:)|' Dal) OM ene TA | LD Neaese cl eesalaseses eens 1.2
Total vegeta-
ble food ....| 97.7 | 95.5 | 91.4 | 74.3 | 57.8 | 40.9 | 48.1 | 49.5 | 87.0 | 98.1 | 93.7 | 99.3 | 77.7
1Tr, = trace.
30 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
In view of the fact that so much has been said in condemnation of
the cowbird’s parasitic habits, it may not be out of place to inquire
whether this parasitism is necessarily as injurious as has been claimed.
When a single young cowbird replaces a brood of four other birds,
each of which has food habits as good as its own, there is, of course,
a distinct loss; but, as already shown, the cowbird must be rated high
in the economic scale on account of its food habits, and it must be
remembered that in most cases the birds destroyed are much smaller
than the intruder, and xo of less effect in their feeding, and that two
or three cowbird eggs are often deposited in one nest.
The question is a purely economic one, and until it can be shown
that the young birds sacrificed for the cowbirds have more economic
value than the parasite, judgment must be suspended.
THE YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD.
(Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus. )
The yellow-headed blackbird is locally distributed throughout the
Western United States, where it frequents marshes and sloughs, but
avoids the more arid deserts, extensive forests, and wooded mountains.
Its range in summer extends from southern California through north-
ern Arizona and New Mexico to Indiana, and northward into the
Canadian Provinces. It winters in the southern part of its range and
on the table-lands of Mexico. Stragglers have been found from Green-
land to Cuba.
Its breeding habits are much like those of the redwing, but it is
usually less abundant than that bird. It is gregarious and resorts to
marshes to build its nest, which is very similar to that of the redwing,
and similarly placed. Although it breeds in marshes, it does not by
any means contine itself to them in its search for food, but forages far
afield, visiting corncribs, grainfields, and barnyards. The writer’s first
experience with the yellow-headed blackbird was on the prairies of
Nebraska, where flocks visited the railway then in process of construc-
tion, running about among the feet of the mules and horses in search
of grubs and worms exposed hy the plow and scraper, and all the time
uttering their striking gutteral notes (almost precisely like those of a
brood of suckling pigs). In their habit of visiting barnyards and hog
pastures they resemble cowbirds much more than redwings. When
the breeding season is over they often visit egraintields in large flocks,
and become the cause of much complaint by Western farmers.
The investigation of their food is founded upon an examination of
138 stomachs received from ten of the Mississippi Valley States, and
from California and Canada, and collected during the seven months
from April to October, inclusive (see p. 73). While decidedly too few
to give entirely reliable results, they may furnish some preliminary
THE YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD. 31
data regarding the food. As indicated by the contents of these
stomachs, the food for the seven months consists of 33.7 percent of
animal (insect) matter and 66.3 percent of vegetable matter. The
animal food is composed chiefly of beetles, caterpillars, and grass-
hoppers, with a few of other orders, while the vegetable food is made
up almost entirely of grain and seeds of useless plants. Predaceous
beetles (Carabidee) constitute 2.8 percent of the season’s food, a very
small amount for a bird of such pronounced terrestrial habits. Most
of these beetles are eaten in May, June, and July, and none are taken
in the fall months. Other beetles amount to a little more than 5 per-
cent, and are eaten mostly in the early part of summer. Caterpillars
constitute 4.6 percent, but nearly two-thirds of them are taken in
July, and in that month they form 21.5 percent of the month’s food.
Remains of the army worm (Leucan/a unipuncta) were identified in 6
stomachs. Grasshoppers are first eaten in May, but do not amount to
any important percentage until July, the month of maximum con-
sumption. In this respect this bird appears to differ, like the bobolink,
from most other species, as August is usually the month in which
grasshoppers are eaten most freely; but the examination of a larger
number of stomachs might prove the yellowhead to be no exception to
the usual rule. After August the consumption of grasshoppers is
considerably increased, and the total for the season is 11.6 percent.
The remainder of the animal food, 9.7 percent, is made up of other
insects, chiefly Hymenoptera (ants, wasps, etc.), with a few dragon-
flies and an occasional spider and snail.
So far as its animal food is concerned, the yellowhead has a very
good record. For a ground feeder, it takes very few predaceous
beetles, while insects harmful to vegetation constitute 30 percent of
its food.
The vegetable food consists almost entirely of seeds, and for eco-
nomic purposes may be divided into grain and weed seed. Of grain,
oats hold first place, as in the food of the redwing, and are probably
eaten in every month when they can be obtained, although none were
found in any of the 5 stomachs taken in September. The 3 October
stomachs contained an average of 63 percent, but a greater number of
stomachs would in all probability give a smaller average. August,
apparently the next month of importance, shows 43.2 percent. Next
to oats corn is the favorite grain, and was eaten to the extent of 9.8
percent, nearly all in the months of April, May, and June, with a
maximum of 48.8 percent in April, when no wheat was eaten. Wheat
appears from May to August, inclusive, and is the only vegetable
food that reaches its highest mark in August. The average for the
season is 3.5 percent.
Grain collectively amounts to 38.9 percent, or considerably more
than half of the total vegetable food, and more than one-third of all
22 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
the food. While there is no doubt that a considerable quantity of
this is waste, still a very decided taste for grain is shown, a point that
is more especially emphasized by the large quantity (more than 54 per-
cent of the total food) eaten in August. Corn, from its appearance in
such large quantities in the food of the early spring months, is evi-
dently picked up as waste grain to a considerable extent, but oats and
wheat, which appear at the same time, are probably largely taken
from newly sown fields. In July and August they evidently come
from harvest fields. Mr. E. W. Nelson, of the Biological Survey,
informs the writer that from about the last of August to the end
of September the cornfields of the table-lands of Mexico are much
damaged by yellowheads.
Weed seed appears as a very prominent item of food in every one
of the seven months under consideration, except October, the record
for which is based on only 3 stomachs and hence can not be made a
basis for sound conclusions. Beginning with 18 percent in April, it
increases to 34 percent in June, drops to 6.6 in July (to make room
for caterpillars and grasshoppers), rises to 36.1 percent in August,
and finally to 64.4 percent in September. While, as stated above,
none was found in the 3 October stomachs, there is no reason to doubt
that weed seed is not only a common article of food in that month
but also a staple diet in the other colder months of the year. It is to
be regretted that no stomachs of the yellowhead have been received
from its winter range, to give some idea of its food during the colder
season. It is almost certain, however, that this would be found to con-
sist of weed seed and waste grain, as in the case of its neighbor, the red-
wing. The weeds found in the stomachs are almost precisely the same
as those eaten by the redwings, and in-practically the same proportions.
Barngrass (Chetochloa), Panicum, and ragweed (Ambrosia) are the
leading kinds, supplemented by Polygonwm, Ruiner, and others.
SUMMARY.
From this brief review some conclusions may be drawn, but the
somewhat fragmentary nature of the evidence makes it probable that
they may be subject to considerable modification in future. It is almost
certain that the rather peculiar distribution of the various items of food
through the season will prove to be more apparent than real in the
light of more extensive observations. In the meantime we may safely
conclude (1) that the yellowhead feeds principally upon insects, grain,
and weed seed, and does not attack fruit or garden produce; (2) that it
does much good by eating noxious insects and troublesome weeds, and
(3) that where too abundant it is likely to be injurious to grain.
When it is considered that the redwing has been accused of doing
immense damage to grainfields, it is evident that the yellowhead, which
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. 33
has been found to eat nearly three times as much grain as the former,
must be capable of much mischief in localities where it becomes
superabundant.
The following table shows the various elements of the food for each
month of the season:
Food of the yellow-headed blackbird.
[NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: April, 9; May, 31; June, 14; July, 16; August, 60; September, 5
October, 3: total, 138.]
Sep- | Octo- | Aver-
Food. April. | May. | June. | July. |August. tember.| ber. age.
SNIMAT: Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.| Percent.
Predaceous beetles.......... QO: 8.0 4.1 4.7 QE fscisinst tee eeccene ve 2.8
Other beetles siete 3.9 12.6 7.8 7.8 OF le cvecrmar O48 5.0
Caterpillars.......... . 0.1 6.0 44 21.5 ORE te vanies| sates d 4.6
Grasshoppers ..............--)...2.025 1.0 0.4 32.0 8.0 15.6 24.3) 11.6
Other insects ................ 2.6 5.3 22.6 6.9 0.8 19.0 10.4 9.7
<i
32.9 39.4 72.9 o7 34.6 37.0] 33.
9.0 DEE Netz alerts Als A |eatpaniverceersl tes sats 9.8
5.7 3.4 5.8 QNDE ls cyeersievelllonarstarste ns 3.5
21.9 12.8 lid 4352} | sees s,s 63.0 | 25.6
30.5 34.0 6.6 36.1 Gdai4 [access Se 2751
eataa ee 0.7 OS eorceyedae Ti) fac wicncie| 028
Total vegetable food...) 90.7 | 67.1 60.6 Zl 90.3 65.4 63.0] 66.3
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD.
(Agelaius pheniceus. )
The red-winged blackbird (otherwise known as the red-shouldered
blackbird, swamp blackbird, and American starling), including its
various races,’ inhabits North America from Nova Scotia and Great
Slave Lake south to Costa Rica. It breeds throughout its range in
the United States and Canada. The typical form is replaced at differ-
ent places in the southern part of the range by the Bahama, Florida,
and Sonoran redwings, but the differences that separate these various
subspecies are scarcely appreciable by the casual observer. The bird
is curiously restricted in its local distribution by the fact that it nests
as a rule only in the immediate vicinity of water, and preferably
directly over it. For this reason it is absent from extensive tracts of
country either in high mountainous regions or in desert or forest
areas. Nests have occasionally been found in perfectly dry situations
at a distance from water, but such cases are exceptional.
The prairies of the Upper Mississippi Valley, with their numerous
sloughs and ponds, furnish ideal nesting places for redwings, and con-
sequently this region has become the great breeding ground for the
1 The different subspecies are not considered separately in this bulletin.
3074—No. 13 3
34 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
species. In many places, especially on the borders of shallow lakes,
thousands of acres of rushes and reeds of various kinds afford nesting
sites for redwings, yellowheads, and marsh wrens, while myriads of
more aquatic species swim in the waters below and nest amid the
broken herbage. It is from such breeding grounds that the vast
flocks are recruited that make such havoc upon fields of grain and call
forth the maledictions of the unfortunate farmer. East of the Appa-
lachian Range the conditions are different. Marshes on the shores of
lakes, rivers, and estuaries are here the only sites available for breed-
ing purposes, and as these are more restricted in number and area
than the western breeding grounds the species is much less abundant
than in the West.
Fic. 4.—Red-winged blackbird.
Like their associates, the marsh wrens, and their neighbors, the
hank swallows, the redwings are eminently gregarious, living in flocks
for the greater part of the time and breeding in communities which
vary in size according to the area of the swamp they occupy. Some-
times these. colonies are reduced to a single family, which in such
cases usually consists of one male bird with several females and their
nests; for this species practices polygamy, a habit noted in the case
of only a few species of song birds.
During the winter the redwings are in the South, but may occasion-
ally be found as far north as latitude 40°, and stragglers may occur at
any point within their summer range. (A young male was shot by the
writer in central Iowa in January. 1874. and one bird whose stomach
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. 85
is included in this investigation was killed in northern Massachusetts
on January 29, 1896.) In their northward migration they begin to
appear in the Upper Mississippi Valley about the last of F ebruary or
during the first half of March, and by the middle of March enter the
New England States. On the return journey they begin to leave the
more northern portions of their range in September, and the migration
is practically complete by the end of October.
Although they arrive from the South at an early date, they are by
no means early breeders, for at that time the marshes are desolate
wastes of dead and broken-down herbage, and the birds do not build
until the new growth is considerably advanced. This involves a delay
of several weeks, during which the birds, having taken possession of
a marsh where they intend to construct their homes, sit idly about
and behave as though ‘time hung heavily upon them. The females
usually perch upon the dead vegetation as if watching for the new
growth to appear, while their liege lord, with the resplendent insignia
of his rank conspicuous on his shoulders, struts about upon some
fence or tree and swells his little body, ruffles up his feathers, and by
a display of his brilliant colors and a rather poor attempt at singing
tries to make the time less wearisome to his patient mates.
Owing to their peculiar nesting habits these birds do not come in
contact with the farmers’ crops appreciably during the breeding sea-
son, since at this time they confine themselves to the immediate
vicinity of their marshy homes. After the season of reproduction
they assemble in flocks, usually of a considerable size and often
immense, and it is at this time that they frequently do serious harm
to crops of standing grain. Much testimony has been received by the
Department of Agriculture indicating that the damage is sometimes
enormous. In letters received from the rice growers in the South
the redwing is implicated equally with the bobolink in destroying
rice both in spring and fall. It is claimed by some, however, that
the redwing is not wholly bad, as it remains in the fields during the
winter and eats the ‘volunteer’ rice, which, if it grew in any consid-
erable quantity, would spoil the crop.
On the other hand, there is considerable evidence that redwings eat
a great many insects, and that it is only under exceptional circum-
stances that they eat grain to an injurious extent. It is noticeable
that nearly all complaints against them come from the Mississippi
Valley, where the native grasses and weeds of the prairies have been
replaced by vast fields of grain. It has also been stated that the
greatest damage was done when but few fields of grain had been
planted. These afforded a new and easily accessible supply of food
of which the birds were not slow to avail themselves; but since the
grainfields have increased in area the work of the birds has become
more widely distributed, and the damage has not been so apparent.
36 ¥OOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
Wilson, in speaking of the food of the redwing, says:
The whole season of winter, that, with most birds, is passed in struggling to sustain
life in silent melancholy, is, with the redwings, one continued carnival. The profuse
gleanings of the old rice, corn, and buckwheat fields, supply them with abundant
food, at once ready and nutritious. * * * Before the beginning of September,
these flocks have become numerous and formidable; and the young ears of maize,
or Indian corn, being then in their soft, succulent, milky state, present a temptation
that can not be resisted. Reenforced by numerous and daily flocks from all parts of
the interior, they pour down on the low countries in prodigious multitudes. Here
they are seen, like vast clouds, wheeling and driving over the meadows and devoted
cornfields, darkening the air with their numbers. Then commences the work of
destruction on the corn, the husks of which, * * * are soon completely or par-
tially torn off; while from all quarters myriads continue to pour down like a tempest,
blackening half an acre at a time; and, if not disturbed, repeat their depredations
till little remains but the cob and the shriveled skins of the grain; what little is
left of the tender ear, being exposed to the rains and weather, is generally much
injured. * * *
It has been already stated, that they arrive in Pennsylvania late in March. Their
general food at this season, as well as during the early part of summer, * * *
consists of grubworms, caterpillars, and various other larve, the silent, but deadly
enemies of all vegetation, and whose secret and insidious attacks are more to be
dreaded by the husbandman than the combined forces of the whole feathered tribes
together. For these vermin, the starlings search with great diligence; in the ground,
at the roots of plants, in orchards, and meadows, as well as among buds, leaves, and
blossoms; and from their known voracity, the multitudes of these insects which they
destroy must be immense. Let me illustrate this by a short computation: If we
suppose each bird, on an average, to devour fifty of these larvee in a day, (a very
moderate allowance, ) a single pair, in four months, the usual time such food is sought
after, will consume upward of twelve thousand. It is believed, that not less than a
million pair of these birds are distributed over the whole extent of the United States
in summer; whose food, being nearly the same, would swell the amount of vermin
destroyed to twelve thousand millions. But the number of young birds may be
fairly estimated at double that of their parents; and, as these are constantly fed on
larvee for at least three weeks, making only the same allowance for them as for the
old ones, their share would amount to four thousand two hundred millions; making
a grand total of sixteen thousand two hundred millions of noxious insects destroyed
in the space of four months by this single species! The combined ravages of sucha
hideous host of vermin would be sufficient to spread famine and desolation over a
wide extent of the richest and best cultivated country on earth. All this, it may be
said, is mere supposition. It is, however, supposition founded on known and
acknowledged facts. I have never dissected any of these birds in spring without
receiving the most striking and satisfactory proofs of these facts; and though, in a
matter of this kind, it is impossible to ascertain precisely the amount of the benefits
derived by agriculture from this, and many other species of our birds, yet, in the
present case, I can not resist the belief, that the services of this species, in spring, are
far more important and beneficial than the value of all that portion of corn which a
careful and active farmer permits himself to lose by it.
Audubon, in speaking of this species, says:
The marsh blackbird is so well known as being a bird of the most nefarious pro-
pensities, that in the United States one can hardly mention its name, without hearing
such an account of its pilferings as might induce the young student of nature to con-
ceive that it had been created for the purpose of annoying the farmer. That it
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. 37
destroys an astonishing quantity of corn, rice, and other kinds of grain, cannot be
denied; but that before it commences its ravages, it has proved highly serviceable to
the crops is equally certain. * * *
Their food at this season [spring], is almost exclusively composed of grubs, worms,
caterpillars, and different sorts of coleopterous insects, which they procure by
searching with great industry, in the meadows, the orchards, or the newly plowed
fields. * * * The millions of insects which the redwings destroy at this early
season, are, in my opinion, a full equivalent for the corn which they eat at another
period.?
Of more recent writers, probably Dr. B. H. Warren has made the
most extensive researches upon the food habits of these birds.
In stating the results of the examination of 25 stomachs, he says:
The redwing * * * destroys large numbers of “cutworms.” I have taken from
the stomach of a single swamp blackbird as many as 28 ‘‘cutworms.” In addition to
the insects, etc., mentioned above, these birds also, during their residence with us,
feed on earth-worms, grasshoppers, crickets, plant-lice and various larvee, so destruc-
tive at times in the field and garden. During the summer season, fruits of the
blackberry, raspberry, wild strawberry, and wild cherry are eaten to a more or less
extent. The young, while under parental care, are fed exclusively on an insect
diet.? ‘
N. S. Goss says of the redwings:
During the fall and winter months they assemble in large flocks, and do much
damage in the ricefields, and are often more or less injurious to the grains within
their summer homes; but the damage they do in the latter case is overbalanced by
the destruction of injurious insects, upon which they almost wholly feed during the
breeding season; busy hunters of the field and followers of the plow.’
Stomach examination does not indicate that the redwings are
especially fond of grain. The diagram here given (fig. 5) illustrates
the variation in the relative proportions of the more important ele-
ments of the food throughout the year. The preponderance of weed
seeds over grain or other vegetable food is apparent at a glance.
Weed seeds, such as Chatochioa (Setaria), Ambrosia, Rumex, Polygo-
num, etc., constitute more than half the food of the year, while grain
(nearly half oats) is less than one-seventh. The only varieties of
Chetochloa that are cultivated extensively are Hungarian grass and
millet, but as these are raised to a great extent as forage plants no
great harm is done by taking the seed, except when it is newly sown
or where the crop is raised for seed alone. The other species are all
noxious weeds, and probably the greater part of the Chetochloa eaten
by birds is from wild plants, which are as much of a nuisance as any
of the other weeds when they get into cultivatcd fields. In the matter
of fruit the redwings are almost total abstainers, only on rare occa-
sions tasting a blackberry or some other of the smaller varieties by
way of experiment.
10Ornith. Biog., Vol. I, pp. 348-349, 1831.
? Birds of Pennsylvania, revised ed., p. 212, 1890.
3 History of the Birds of Kansas, p. 399, 1891.
38 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND .GRACKLES.
The increase of vegetable food other than grain and weed seeds
during August and September is due to the consumption of wild rice
(Zizania aquatica), which at this time forms quite an important item.
In their insect diet the redwings do much good, for only a small
proportion of the species they eat are beneficial. More destructive
snout-beetles (weevils) are eaten by them than by any other birds that
the writer has examined, with the single exception of the bobolinks.
Other beetles and grasshoppers also constitute an important part of
APR|MAY |JUNE|JULY | AUG.|SEPT] OCT. | NOV. | DEC. és
400 SERN SS NANS RON RRA PARANA ES
SME BATAR YS SNS QASATSS SABES SQL
SSAA SSS SRS
90 SSUES NRE '
ARS ANY AYSNA\S SNS) ry
SSRIS
RASA SSAS AY YS ARS
SASS PSN SANSA <
BO fs ASS 80
he NS AN
i} AW SS
E EAN
70S YE ASS 70
60 60
VX NSS
50 50
40 Nis
URIOUS—=INSECT:
50 30
10 40
Fig. 5.—Diagram showing proportions of animal and vegetable food of red-winged blackbird in
each month of the year. ‘he relative amounts of the different kinds of food are shown by variously
shaded areas. Thus, in June, useful insects are represented by the broken-lined area at the bottom
of the column for that month, injurious insects by the horizontally shaded space, grain by the space
shaded with diagonal broken lines, and the other elements of food in similar manner. The percent-
age of food (for example, of injurious insects), for a month, is not necessarily indicated by the summit
of the curve, but by the space between the upper and lower curves. (The figures in the margins
indicate percentages. )
the insect food. While there can be no doubt that the birds do con-
siderable damage when collected in large flocks, it is probable that
such injury will become less and less as the area of cultivation
increases and the swamps where they breed are encroached upon and
drained, with a consequent reduction in the abundance of the species.
The Biological Survey has examined 1,083 stomachs of the redwing,
collected in every month of the year, and from thirty States, the District
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. 39
of Columbia, and Canada (see p. 74). The greater number of these
stomachs were collected in the Northern States during and immediately
before or after the breeding season. Most of those taken in the South
were collected in Texas during the winter. These throw considerable
light on the winter food, which does not apparently differ greatly from
that eaten in the Northern States in the early spring and late fall. No
stomachs were received from the rice-growing region during sowing
and harvesting.
The food of the year was found to consist of 73.£ percent of vege-
table matter and 26.6 percent of animal. The animal food begins
with 1.4 percent in January and gradually increases to 88.2 percent
in June, after which it regularly decreases to a fraction of 1 percent
in November. With the exception of a few snails and crustaceans, it
consists entirely of insects and their allies (spiders and myriapods), so
that, roughly speaking, insects constitute one-fourth of the year’s food.
They consist principally of beetles, grasshoppers, and caterpillars,
with a few wasps, ants, flies, bugs, and dragon-flies.
The beetles (Coleoptera) amount to a little more than 10 percent of
the food, and the greater part of them are harmful insects. They
belong to several families, but only one group is eaten extensively
enough to be greatly distinguished above the others. This is the sub-
order of snout-beetles or weevils (Rhynchophora). These constitute
4.1 percent of the year’s food, but in June amount to 22.4 percent of
the food of the month. All the beetles of this group are injurious,
some of them greatly so. Useful predaceous beetles (Carabide) are
eaten to the extent of 2.5 percent of the food of the year, but are
taken mostly in spring and early summer. Other beetles, belonging
to several families, such as click-beétles (Elateride), leaf-beetles (Chry-
somelide), May-beetles (Scarabeide), and a few others, amount
altogether to 3.5 percent.
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera) are eaten practically in every month of
the year, though none were found in the 11 stomachs taken in January.
They constitute 4.7 percent of the whole food, and are exceeded by
no other insects except beetles and caterpillars. The greatest number
(amounting to 17 percent) are eaten in August, the ‘ grasshopper
month.’ As all species of grasshoppers are injurious, their destruc-
tion must be counted to the credit of the bird.
Caterpillars (larve of Lepidoptera) form 5.9 percent of the year’s
food. They are eaten to a slight extent in the winter months and in
gradually increasing amounts up to May, when they form 20 percent
of the food. Their consumption falls away to almost nothing in Au-
gust, when grasshoppers are plentiful, and rises again in September,
showing that grasshoppers are preferred, and for a short time replace
the lepidopterous food. The same fact has been shown in the case of
40 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES,
the Baltimore oriole, which leaves the trees in August and descends
to the ground to eat grasshoppers.’ While caterpillars are not all
harmful, none of them as far as known are doing anything for the
good of the farmer, so the redwings, in so far as they destroy these
insects, are doing a beneficial work, and among those found in the
stomachs were a number of the widely known and dreaded army worm
(Leucania unipuncta). Miss Caroline G. Soule, ina letter from Bran-
don, Vt., quoted by Dr. C. M. Weed, says that the redwings, with
other birds, do especially good work in destroying the pupe of the
forest-tent caterpillar, and later feed on the adult insects.’
Other insects, such as ants and wasps (Hymenoptera), bugs (Hemip.
tera), flies (Diptera), and dragon-flies (Odonata), with a few spiders
and myriapods, make up the rest of the animal food, but none of them
are eaten to such an extent as to render them of any striking economic
importance. Ants, bugs, and flies are all more or less injurious or
annoying insects, while wasps, dragon-flies, and spiders are probably
for the most part somewhat useful. Dragon-flies are found about
water, where the redwings also live, but they are too rapid in flight
and too restless to be caught by anything less expert than a flycatcher,
and it is probable that those eaten by redwings are picked up dead.
Spiders are for the most part useful, but in a rather restricted way,
and their destruction is not a great loss. Considered as a whole, the
animal food of the redwings consists of insects, the most of which
are positively harmful, while but few are decidedly beneficial.
The diagram on p. 38 shows in a striking manner the increase of
the animal food in early summer—that is, in June. It is probable that
the exhaustive labors of reproduction call for a more exclusively ani-
mal diet in May and June than does the strain of moulting in July
and August. There seems to be no other theory by which to explain
the decrease in the latter month, especially in view of the fact that
these are the months when grasshoppers abound.
The vegetable food of the redwings consists mainly of seeds of
grasses and weeds, the different kinds of grain being merely larger or
more important grasses. Some of these plants, like wild rice (Zizania),
have no economic importance; but many others, such as the culti-
vated grains, are of value, and their destruction is a positive loss;
while still others, like ragweed (Ambrosia), are noxious weeds, the
destruction of which is a benefit to the farmer. The following table
shows all the vegetable substances found, with the number of stomachs
in which each occurred:
1Yearbook Dept. of Agriculture for 1895, p. 429.
* Bull, 64, N, H. Agr. Coll. Expt. Sta., May, 1900.
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. 41
Vegetable substances found in stomachs of red-winged blackbirds.
Grain: Stomachs. | Weeds—Continued. Stomachs.
Oats. scnfiaues aaa ene Lee rents 190 Smartweed (Polygonum) .....-- 200
COTM: a usliiool ae n eens ies a 117 Sorrel (Rumex) -.............- 64
Wheat cescck oe ceaeenteee svcd 68 Chickweed (Alsine)...........- 9
Barleyz eves sese een cece ac 8 2 Unidentified ....2...22...2222. 168
Forage: Fruits:
Clover (Trifolium) ............- 4 Blackberry (Rubus) ........... i
Sorghum (Sorghum) ..-.......- 5 Blueberry (Vaccinium) ........ 2
Timothy (Phlewm) .....-....-. 7 Gooseberry (Ribes) ...@..-....- 1
Weeds: Strawberry (Fragaria)......... a
Panic-grass (Panicum)......... 168 Indian currant (Symphoricarpos) 1
Joint-grass (Paspalum)......... 21 Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)... 1
Barngrass (Chatochloa) .-...... 271 Unidentified -.-.......22...... 14
Wild rice (Zizania) ..-......... 24 | Miscellaneous:
Amaranth (Amaranthus)... .... 4 Bayberry (Myrica cerifera) .._.. 2
Ragweed (Ambrosia)........... 189 Beechnuts (Fagus) -......-.... 1
Pigweed (Chenopodium) -..-... 4 Pine seed (Pinus) ............- 10
Sunflower (Helianthus) ........ 13 Sedge (Carex)......--....-.... 1
Gromwell (Lithospermum)....-. 1 Bulb or tuber ..-..---222.22... 4
Plantain (Plantago).....-..---- 1 Rubbish -....-..-2.22.----...- 54
In the list the chief interest, of course, centers about the grain.
Of the four kinds eaten, oats are evidently the favorite, for they were
found in 190 stomachs and amount to 6.3 percent of the year’s food.
April shows a little less than 6 percent for the month, undoubtedly
collected from newly sown fields. In June they fall to less than 2 per-
cent, in July rise to 22.6, increase somewhat in August, fall to 4.2 in
September, and disappear entirely before the end of October. A few
were found in December, but they do not appear in the other winter
months. The oats eaten in July were probably taken from standing
or newly cut grain,as perhaps were some of those eaten in August;
but most of the oats in the United States are cut before the end of
July, so that the greater part of those that were taken after this
month must have been gleaned from the stubble or pilfered from the
sheck. Wheat first appears in March to the amount of 1.5 percent,
but does not become an important item of food until July, when it
rises abruptly to 13.1 percent. As July is the harvest month for
wheat in most parts of this country it is reasonably certain that this
grain is taken from the standing crop or gathered from the field after
the reaper has done its work. August and September show 6.2 and
1.6 percent, respectively, all of which must have been scattered grain
except where it could be stolen from the shock. The total amount of
wheat for the year is only 2.2 percent. Corn is eaten to the extent
of 2.6 percent in February, but the amount increases to 9.2 percent
in March, after which it decreases to 3.0 percent in June. It rises
through July and August to 7.5 percent in September, but falls off
rapidly after September and is unimportant during the remainder of
the year. The average for the year is 4.6 percent.
42 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
Grain collectively amounts to 13.9 percent of the food of the year,
and its distribution as shown above leads to the conclusion that at
least half of it is waste. Oats alone show an increased consumption
in May, the month of sowing. July and August are the months of
maximum consumption. All that is eaten after August, except corn,
must be gathered from the stubble, unless the grain is left shocked in
the field; and even in that case it is difficult to understand how the
birds can do any serious damage if the shocks are properly put up and
are not alldtwed to remain out an unreasonable time.
In order to gain a more thorough understanding of the grain-eating
propensities of the redwings, a special study was made of the food for
the five months from May to September, inclusive. Forty-six percent
of the stomachs taken in May contained grain, and only 11 percent of
those taken in June. The ratio then rises in July, and culminates at
72 percent in August, after which it decreases rapidly. The average
for the five months is 46 percent; that is, in every 100 birds taken
46 had eaten grain. The grain-eating record, as exhibited by the bulk
of the grain food, is quite different. Grain constitutes about 20 per-
cent of the food by bulk in May and less than 6 percent in June,
but rises to a maximum of nearly 43 percent in July and falls off
slightly in August, after which it rapidly decreases and disappears.
The average consumption for the five months is 24 percent of the
whole food. Again, if the two months of July and August are con-
sidered alone, it will be found that although 68 of every 100 birds have
eaten grain, this item constitutes only 41 percent of the food for the
two months.
Still further restricting the study to birds taken in the Mississippi
Valley, in the same five months, May to September, the percentage of
grain shows an important increase. During these months 178 birds
were collected in the States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minne-
sota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas. The
number, though small, is sufficient to serve at least as a clue to the
food during this period. Grain was eaten by 60 percent of the birds
collected in May, by 46 percent of those taken in June, by 80 per-
cent of those taken in July, by 81 percent of those taken in August,
and by 45 percent of those taken in September. Of the food of
those taken in May, 27 percent was grain of various kinds; in June,
23 percent; in July, 51 percent; in August, 45 percent, and in Sep-
tember 24 percent; an average of 34 percent of grain for the five
months. As these are the ones in which nearly all of the grain is
eaten, and as more than half of it is eaten in July and August, the
above exhibit apparently shows the worst that the redwings do. Of
the 1,083 stomachs examined, only 19 were filled with grain alone,.
while 217 were entirely filled with the seeds of weeds or useless
plants. The total grain consumed, as given above, is less than that
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD. 43
eaten by the crow blackbird (45 percent), the jay (19 percent), or
the cowbird (17 percent). In view of the fact that the redwing has
been under the ban in many States and in some still remains so, this
result is rather surprising. It renders more impressive the fact that
the damage is due to overwhelming numbers in that part of the coun-
try from which the complaints have come, and not the amount of
grain eaten by the individual bird. The unequaled facilities for
breeding afforded by that region have in many instances given rise to
such immense flocks in a restricted area that, while each bird eats but
a trifle, the total is tremendous.
Weed seed is apparently the favorite food of the redwings, since
the total amount of grass and weeds is 54.6 percent, more than half of
the year’s food, and more than four times the total grain consumption.
These seeds are the principal article of diet of the birds in the Northern
States in the early spring and late fall, and the stomachs received from
the South during the winter are filled with them almost exclusively.
They amount to more than 3 percent in June, the month of minimum
consumption, and constitute a very appreciable percentage even dur-
ing the months when grain is most abundant. The great bulk consists
of the four well-known genera of noxious weeds, Chatochloa (barn-
grass or foxtail), Ambrosia (ragweed), Panicum (panic-grass), and
Polygonum (smartweed and knotweed). The others were found in
from 1 to 64 stomachs each, and while not all are as much of a nuisance
to clean cultivation as the four named, none have any useful function
in agriculture. Fruit forms so insignificant a proportion of the red-
wing’s food that it is hardly worth considering. Blackberries or rasp-
berries were identified by their seeds in 7 stomachs, but only a few
were found in each, and the percentage is trifling. The other species
taken also appear in few stomachs and in small quantities.
The miscellaneous list contains a collection of makeshifts upon which
the bird falls in case of necessity, the most curious of which, perhaps,
is the seed of the pine tree. The birds from whose stomachs these
were obtained were shot in the very act of picking the seeds from the
cones in the top of the tree, a strange employment for an inhabitant
of a marsh, but Dr. Coues notes the breeding of this bird near pine
trees at a distance from any marsh."
SUMMARY.
In summing up the economic status of the redwing the principal
point to attract attention is the small percentage of grain in the year’s
food, seemingly so much at variance with the complaints of the bird’s
~ destructive habits. Judged by the contents of its stomach alone, the
redwing is most decidedly a useful bird. The service rendered by
- the destruction of noxious insects and weed seeds far outweighs the
1Birds of the Northwest, p. 187, 1874.
44 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
damage due to its consumption of grain. The destruction that it some-
times causes must be attributed entirely to its too great abundance in
some localities.
The following table shows the various elements of its food for each
month:
Food of the red-winged blackbird.
(NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January, 11; February, 48; March, 84; April, 104; May, 75; June, 158;
July, 141; August, 151; September, 56; October, 91; November, 82; December, 82; total, 1,083.]
a oma 2 :
. be 2 oO oO
B04 5 2 nH} a | 8 | ¢
Food. a a | 6 ; g qd | 3 8 g| 2
I q 5 a re oy 3 2 2 2 ca 5
pie lelSleleBl ele /e/ Ble ETE
&/e&|/a)/<4/e)/4 )/4 | 4} al]o}lasaie€
AoSysbad., Per-' Pcr- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-| Per-| Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-| Per-
cent, cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent.
Predaceous beetl’s|.....- 0.2) 31) 27) 65) 65} 65] 19) 1.5) 0.3] 01] 04) 25
Snout-beetles
Other beetles
Caterpillars ...... 0.1); 21] 82) 82) 201/164] 43) 09] 95) 03)1Tr| 03] 59
Grasshoppers.....|----.- 0.2); 0.2) 4.6) 3.3 | 12.7} 18.4) 17.0) 4.1) 1.1 )1Tr.)1Tr) 47
Other insects ..... 1.2] 0.2] 0.7] 6.0) 163) 9Of 98] 24) 1.0) 1.6] 0.1] 06] 41
Spiders and my-
PI NPO AS? <rc-sisses:s.255 | sisrereisin 0.3] 0.5] 3.2] 2.0) 5.8] 2.0} 0.4)/1Tr.} 0.2] O12] 1.4] 18
Other animal food]......|...... PGP, oe BO a Oe asl ela 0.5
Total animal |
20] “OG as sesleceens DPT. |sca 2c 0.6
4.21 6.7) BS) BF) Bed) Ls] &8
22.6) 27.8 | 4.2 | 0.3 ].--.-. 0.2) 63
.9 | 18.1] 6.2] 1.6]...... OFT exeess 2.2
Other grain D238) Ose) Ode] 227) AVS a ewwes |acesealeeeseelee sets 0.8
Weed seeds 35.7| 10.2] 3.6] 4.5 | 15.5 | 55.7 | 88.0 | 97.0 | 91.2 | 54.6
Other vegetable
Total vegeta-
ble food...
98.6 | 93.5 | 84.6 BIG Beat 11.7 | 52.1 | 73.0 | 83.5 | 95.8 | 99.7 | 96.4 | 73.4
\Tr, = trace,
CALIFORNIA RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD.
(Agelaius gubernator californicus.)
The California red-winged blackbird is confined to the Pacific coast
region west of the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada, and ranges from
Washington to Lower California. The stomachs upon which this in-
vestigation is based, 61 in all, were collected in California at different
times of the year, but none in February, May, or August (see p. 74):
Although this number is entirely too small to give data that can be
considered final, it is thought best to publish those obtained, as they
will give some insight into the character of the food.
THE RUSTY BLACKBIRD. 45
Of the total food, only 1.6 percent is animal matter, and the re-
mainder, 98.4 percent, is mostly grain. The animal food consists of
beetles, ants, grasshoppers, bugs, caterpillars, and a few spiders—
mostly harmful, but so few in number that they are economically
insignificant. Of the 98.4 percent of vegetable food, 85.5 percent
consists of grain. This is made up of wheat, 28.9 percent; oats, 52.3
percent; and barley, 4.3 percent. Corn was not found. It is prob-
able that this record would be somewhat modified by an examination
of a larger series of stomachs representing every month of the year,
but it must be remembered that one of the missing months is Feb-
ruary, a month when birds feed to a great extent upon vegetable
food, and another is August, which is a harvest month. The other
vegetable food (12.9 percent) consists mostly of the seeds of noxious
weeds. ,
Further field observation of the habits of this species is needed, but
it is probable that the bird does great damage in places where it is
abundant, especially in grain-growing sections. In view of the very
large percentage of grain in the stomachs, and the fact that grain forms
more than half the food in every month, it does not seem probable
that the bird is able to supply its wants from the waste grain of the
fields and corrals. Even if 50 percent were so obtained, a large
percentage, more than 40 percent, of the total food still remains to
the discredit of the species. Further investigation is necessary
before final conclusions can be drawn, but it hardly seems probable
that it can show the California redwing in any other light than that of
a source of danger to grain.
THE RUSTY BLACKBIRD.
(Scolecophagus carolinus. ) ;
One of the most familiar sights to the New England schoolboy, and
one which assures him that spring is really at hand, is a tree full of
blackbirds, all facing the same way and each one singing at the top
of its voice. These are rusty blackbirds, or rusty grackles, which,
on their spring journey to the north, have a way of beguiling the
tedium of their long flight by stopping and giving free concerts.
Every farmhouse by the wayside will have its visitors, and every boy
who hears them is eager to tell his mates that he has seen the first flock
of blackbirds. They breed in the Maritime Provinces of Canada,
the northern parts of New England, New York, and Minnesota and
northwestward nearly to the mouth of the Mackenzie River and
Kotzebue Sound, Alaska; and spend the winter in the Southern States
as far west as Texas and as far north as southern Illinois. In their
Migrations they are seen in immense numbers, especially in the Mis-
sissippi Valley.
46 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
The great majority of these birds nest so far north that they are
beyond the limits of cultivation, and consequently have no economic
interest during the breeding months. But as soon as the season of re-
production is over they begin toassemble and move southward, and it
is evident that such vast flocks as they form might prove a serious
menace to any crop on which they chose to prey. Reports, how-
ever, have not implicated them to any great degree in the devastation
of grainfields, and it seems to be their habit to feed about swamps and
inroadsand stock yards. That they have a decided taste for foraging
in wet ground or about water is shown by the contents of their
stomachs, which included aquatic beetles of many species, with larve
of ephemeride, caddice-fly cases, a few dragon-flies, small snails and
other mollusks, salamanders, and small fishes.
The food of rusty blackbirds does not seem to have received much
attention, but a few ornithologists have given it brief consideration.
Mr. C. J. Maynard reports that he has never found anything in
their stomachs except insects and small mollusks.*
Col. N.S. Goss says:
They are largely omnivorous in their food habits, preferring the various forms of
insect life, snails, ete., that abound in the aquatic grasses; but during the winter
months, when forced to feed largely upon grains and seeds, they frequent the cattle
yards and corn fields, and further south forage off the rice plantations.’
Dr. Warren says:
The food of this species consists largely of beetles, grasshoppers, snails and earth-
worms. They feed to a considerable extent on the seeds of various plants; different
kinds of small berries are added to their menu; the scattered grains of wheat, rye
or other cereals, which are to be found in the fields and meadows, are likewise eaten.
When in cornfields they sometimes perch on the shocks and pick from the ears
a few grains, the damage, however, which they do in this way is of but little
importance.’
The investigation of the food of the rusty blackbird made by the
Biological Survey is based on 132 stomachs, obtained from 16 States,
the District of Columbia, and Canada (see p. 74). These stomachs
represent every month of the year except June and July, when the
birds are on their breeding range away from well-settled portions of
the country. It ix to be regretted that none of the months except
March, April, October, and November are fairly represented. Few
stomachs were obtained in the other months, January having but one
to its credit.
The stomachs contained a larger proportion of animal matter (53
percent) than those of any other species of American blackbirds except
the hobolink. This is the more remarkable in view of the fact that
none were taken in the two breeding months of June and July, when
in all probability the food consists almost exclusively of animal matter.
'Birds Eastern N. A., p. 147, 1881.
* Hist. Birds of Kansas, p. 408, 1891.
* Birds of Pa., revised ed., p. 219, 1890.
THE RUSTY BLACKBIRD. 4?
While the birds are decidedly terrestrial in their feeding habits, they
do not eat many predaceous ground-beetles (Carabide), the total con-
sumption of these insects amounting to only 1.7 percent of the whole
food. Scarabeids, the May-beetle family, form 2 percent, and in
April 11.7 percent. Various other families of beetles aggregate 10.1
percent, largely aquatic beetles and their larve, which, so far as
known, do not have any great economic importance. A few of the
destructive snout-beetles (Rhynchophora) are also included, as well as
some chrysomelids and others.
Caterpillars constitute 2.5 percent and do not form any very strik-
ing percentage at any time, except, perhaps, in May, when they amount
to 11.7 percent. Grasshoppers nearly equal beetles in the extent to
which they are eaten, and exceed every other order of insects, although
none appeared in the stomachs taken in January, March, May, and
December, and in February but a trace. In August, as usual, they
reach the maximum, 44.3 percent, only a trifle higher, however, than
the October record. The average for the year is 12 percent. Various
orders of insects, such as ants, a few bugs, and also a few flies, with
such aquatic species as dragon-flies, caddice-flies, and ephemerids were
eaten in all the months except January, in which only one stomach
was taken. They aggregate 13.7 percent of the whole food, but owing
to the number of forms no one amounts to a noteworthy percentage,
and many of them are of little economic importance. Spiders and
myriapods (thousand-legs) are eaten to the extent of 4 percent and
amount to 23 percent in August. Other small animals, such as crus-
taceans, snails, salamanders, and small fish, were found in the stomachs
for nearly every month, and amount to 7 percent of the food of the
year, but none of them are important from an economic point of view.
The vegetable food consists of grain, weed seed, and various miscel-
laneous substances, none of which amounts to any great percentage.
The latter consist chiefly of a very small amount of fruit, a little mast,
and a number of unidentifiable substances, probably picked up about
water or in swamps. Of grain, corn is the favorite and amounts to
17.6 percent of the year’s food. It constitutes 87 percent of the con-
tents of the single stomach taken in January, but this record can not
be used as a criterion, for with this exception the maximum percent-
age is 26.5 (average of 15 stomachs taken in November), while the
stomachs collected in May, August, and September show not a trace
of corn. The fact that corn constitutes respectively only 5 and 4
percent of the contents of the stomachs taken in December and Febru-
ary is additional evidence that the January percentage is exceptional.
Wheat and oats collectively amount to only 6.8 percent of the year’s
food. Oats are apparently preferred and in March constitute 15.4
percent of the month’s food. These March stomachs came from the
Southern States, so it is probable that the grain was picked up on
newly sown fields. Neither wheat nor oats were found in the stomachs
taken in August. Grain collectively amounts to 24.4 percent of the
48 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES,
whole food, but from its distribution through the year does not
appear to have been taken from the harvest fields. It is probable
that some of it was gathered from newly sown fields, but the greater
part was undoubtedly stolen from corncribs or picked up in roads and
stock yards as waste grain.
Weed seed is not so important an item of food with the rusty black-
birds as it is with the redwings, since with the former it amounts to
only 6 percent of the year’s food, and contrary to observations on
most seed-eating birds, the greater portion of it is apparently eater
in the insect season. Only 1 percent was found in the stomach taken
in January, but the amount increases irregularly up to a maximum
of 23.3 percent in May. Of June and July we know nothing, but
in August, the month in which the redwing begins to increase its
seed diet, there is not a single trace of weed seed in the food of the
rusty blackbirds. It constitutes 6.6 percent in September, a trifle in
October, and 15 percent in. November and is entirely absent in the 3
stomachs taken in December. This erratic distribution evidently indi-
cates that weed seed is not sought after, but is simply taken when
nothing better is at hand. Miscellaneous items of vegetable food
amount to 16.6 percent of the food of the year. Fruit was found ina
few stomachs, but does not appear to any important extent. Only
three kinds were determined, but several stomachs contained pulp or
skin that could not be identified. Several buffalo berries (Shepherdia
argentea) were found in one stomach, hackberries (Celé/s oce/dentalis)
in another, and seeds of blackberries or raspberries (udus) in two or
three others. Mast was found in a few stomachs, but the greater part
of the miscellaneous food was indeterminable. The birds are evi-
dently great scavengers, and so gather much food that is scarcely sus-
ceptible of classification.
SUMMARY.
N
While this record of the food of the rusty blackbird is somewhat
fragmentary it still gives a very good idea of the bird’s general diet.
One important conclusion that can be drawn is that animal food is
preferred, vegetable food serving as a makeshift. It is nearly certain
that in June and July, when the birds are engaged in the exhausting
function of reproduction, the diet must be almost exclusively animal.
If those months were represented in this investigation, the relative
proportion of the two classes of food would be much changed, and
animal food would take a higher rank. The vegetable food is of little
consequence, as the birds show no decided predilection for any partic-
ular kind, but eat whatever is at hand when animal food can not be
obtained. Grain is not eaten to any great extent at harvest time, and
the other items do not seem to have any special relation to the season
in which they are eaten. While considerable animal food beside
insects is eaten, on the other hand a considerable quantity of harmful
THE RUSTY BLACKBIRD.
insects is destroyed and very few useful ones are taken.
blackbirds do not inhabit farms, their economic relations can not be
said to be very important; but while not preying directly upon nox-
ious insects or weeds which interfere with the cultivation of crops,
it is yet possible that they incidentally do considerable good by eating
insects.
49
As rusty
Although their foraging is done mostly in pastures and
swamps, yet the insects which they devour count just so much from
the sum total, and in the long run the destruction of noxious species
is, perhaps, nearly as great a good to the farmer as though they were
taken directly from his cultivated fields.
Grasshoppers and many scarabeid beetles are nuisances, and their
destruction is a benefit to agriculture, no matter where they may he
found. The same may be said of caterpillars and many other insects,
which, though now feeding on useless plants of the marsh or thicket,
are liable at any time, through an unusual increase in numbers or a
change in environment, to turn their attention to some crop and
become a veritable pest.
crustaceans, which form a considerable percentage of the diet of the
rusty grackles, are to a great extent carnivorous in their habits, and
it is difficult to see in what way they can ever become of any great
economic importance.
On the other hand, aquatic beetles and small
The following table shows the percentages of the principal elements
of the food for each month:
Food of the rusty blackbird.
[NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January, 1; February, 6; Mareb,17; April, 49; May, 7: June, none
collected; July, none collected; August, 4; September, 5; October, 25; November, 15; December, 3;
total, 182.
: H ro ay
a ; 3 4 e 2 a ¥
a a) eS lela) ht elels aie
Be Ve ee Be Be Le ae
3 2 4 o iS) 2 = as
5 a ma <a a a n 2 Zz 5 a
ANIMAL. BON EEG cee (ene ae | Ge | eee | Gee Larne | Gent | oe
Predaceous beetles ..........|..----|----+- 425 jf 168 ee caeas 1/8!) Ag6 f “288 OLE oswees 1.7
May-beetle family...........].----- 2.5 |.ceee THe ecvecret (eens SOE Be Olle 2.0
Other beetles ............2.2-[--2--- 37.3 | 13.4| 13.7] 25.9] 10] 7.0] 16] 1.3]...... 10.1
VOCE sc icucdenecaaalfieean 420 | va) 2520) | TT | ewees I terctsin D8! | OPA? oseeets D5)
Grasshoppers ..--..--.---+++-|------ Os 23 lees 973 aes 44.3 | 18.6 | 44.2] 3.9 )...... 12.0
Other insects.............-..]------ 25.8 | 13.9 | 15.5 | 20.0] 26.0, 16,0] 4.5] 13.2) 1.7] 13.7
Spiders and myriapods......|.-.--. 0.9] 3.8] 4.9] +1] 23.0 ]...--. OEE |, OES: aeraeer 4.0
Other animal food _.........)...--- 15 WF | BRP TSB [eee sce 16.2} 5.1] 5.9] 80.0] 7.0
Total animal food .....|-..--- 72,2 | 44.8 | 68.7 | 63.0 | 96.8 | 59.4 | 65.8 | 27.5 | 81.7 | 53.0
VEGETABLE.
<0 | 28:8 [20/8 ocexe,|aescae|esesee 9.0) 26.5 | 5.0] 17.6
Peres 15:4) BAT] WOT Ne eceal 23: TSH, hide Veccsac! G8
O84 BA] 44/2818 | ence 6.6] 0.8 | 15.0 |....-. 6.0
93.5! 7.61 24] 1.6] 3.2 | 20.6 | 17.1 | 26.5 | 63.3 | 16.6
Total vegetable food ../100.0 | 27.8 55.2 | 31.3 | 37.0] 3.2} 40.6 | 34.2 | 72.5 | 68.3 | 47.0
8074—No. 183——+
50 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
BREWER’S BLACKBIRD.
(Scolecophagus cyanocephalus. )
Brewer's blackbird breeds from Manitoba and the eastern edge of
the Great Plains south to northern New Mexico and westward to the
Pacific, and spends the winter in the southern part of this region and
in Mexico. The economic status of the species has as yet hardly
become well defined, but some complaints have been received from the
grain-growing sections, and it may possibly be a pest where it exists
in any great numbers. The bird is eminently gregarious most of the
year, though less so at breeding time. Like the cowbird, it is an
industrious gleaner in pastures, harnvards, and roads, and even invades
the streets of towns for the purpose of gathering scattered grain and
other foraye.
But little testimony is available as to the food of Brewer's blackbird,
but Goss says that the members of this species are ‘‘ social, gregarious
birds, breeding in small colonies, and foraging together over the culti-
vated fields, pastures and plains; indiscriminate eaters of insect life,
seeds, etc.,and * * * vegular visitants of the slaughterhouses.”?
In the investigation by the Biological Survey 146 stomachs were
examined, collected from six States and representing every month
except April (see p. 75).” The first analysis of the food shows that
animal matter forms 31.8 percent and vegetable matter 68.2 percent.
The animal food consists almost wholly of insects, the only exceptions
being a few spiders and snails. The insects are mostly beetles, ants,
wasps, and grasshoppers, with a few caterpillars, flies, and bugs.
Beetles amount to 7.8 percent of the food of the year. The only
group which appears at all prominently is that of the snout-beetles, or
Rhynchophora, which in May constitute 29 percent of the food. In the
other months they are not found so often, and the average for the year
ix only 3.4 percent. Predaceous beetles (Carabide) are eaten to the
amount of 1.7 percent, and are not conspicuous in any month.
Hymenoptera constitute 14.8 percent of the food for August, but do
not appear very prominently in the other months, and average but 2.5
percent for the year. They consist for the most part of wasps and
ants, with a few of the smaller parasitic species.
Grasshoppers are the favorite insect. diet, constituting more than
half of the total animal food (16.1 percent). Only a trace appears in
the February stomachs, but in March the amount. increases to 20.5
percent, and except in July does not fall below this figure until Octo-
ber. In August, which as usual is the month of greatest: consump-
tion, er shopper s constitute 47.5 percent—ner uly half of all the food.
Hist. Birds of Kansas, p. 409, 1891,
2One stomach was taken in April, but as its contents were quite unlike the average
of those collected in March and May, it has been discarded until more can be
obtained for the same month.
BREWER’S BLACKBIRD. ob
In July the percentage falls to 8.2, apparently because at that time
the grain harvest is at hand and the birds eat freely of oats, wheat,
etc. The miscellaneous list is made up of a few flies, bugs, and cater-
pillars, the latter such as might be expected in the stomach of a bird
of the habits of the species under consideration, though the number
really found is surprisingly small. One stomach taken in California
in March contained 90 per cent of caterpillars, and a few other stomachs
contained them in smaller amounts; but they do not constitute an
important percentage of any month. Mr. J. F. Illingsworth, of
Ontario, Cal., says that he has never failed to find from one to five
worms [caterpillers] in each stomach that he has examined, which
indicates that under some circumstances they do eat these insects
extensively.
The vegetable food of Brewer’s blackbird is preeminently grain,
which amounts to 60.3 percent of the total food of the year, while
all other vegetable food aggregates only 7.9 percent. Oats, corn,
wheat, and a little barley are eaten, and of these oats are the most
important, amounting to nearly three-fourths of the total quantity
and being eaten in every month of the year.t. Corn stands next to
oats, but far below in quantity; wheat follows next in order, and bar-
lev comes last, the latter having been found in only two stomachs.
So important an element is grain that it constitutes more than 50
percent of the food in each of eight months, and in May, the month
of least consumption, still amounts to 21 percent of the whole food.
While much of this may be waste grain, it can hardly be probable that
all of it is picked up in highways and byways. In July it amounts to
nearly 72 percent of the food, and there can be no doubt that much
of this is gathered from ripening fields. Other vegetable food con-
sists for the most part of weed seed, but the small amount differs
remarkably from the quantities eaten by the redwing and cowbird,
which are great weed destroyers at all times, and especially in winter.
Brewer’s blackbird eats grain in every month, and in winter subsists
upon it almost entirely. Mr. Walter K. Fisher, writing from Stock-
ton, Cal., reports it as feeding on newly sown wheat that had not been
harrowed in and eating nearly all that had been thus left exposed.
He describes the birds as visiting the fields in immense flocks, which,
at a distance, look like smoke rising from the ground, and says that
stomachs of birds taken on such fields were found to be full of wheat.
SUMMARY.
In summing up the results of this investigation it must be acknowl-
edged that the stomachs examined are too few, and are not distributed
widely enough geographically, to justify a fir economic classification
of the bird. Nevertheless some very salient points seem to have been
1The greatest quantities were found in stomachs taken in January at Escondido, Cal.
52 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
brought out, viz: (1) No order of insects is especially sought except
grasshoppers (Orthoptera), which constitute more than half of the
animal food; (2) more than $8 percent of the vegetable food consists
of grain, which is eaten freely at all seasons, even when insects are
abundant; and (8) seeds of harmful weeds are eaten sparingly.
In spite of this apparently discreditable record complaints of this
blackbird have been fewer than of several other species, while, on the
other hand, some observers speak highly of it. Prof. A. J. Cook, of
Claremont, Cal., says that he considers it one of the most valuable
species in that State. So far as shown by field observation and stom-
ach examination it does not attack fruit, and this is an important point
in a California bird. Mr. J. F. Ulingsworth, of Ontario, Cal., in a
paper read before the Pomona Farmers’ Club,‘ speaks of the species
as a beneficial one that should be protected. It is possible that the
large amount of grain found in the stomachs consists principally of
gleanings from the harvested fields, corrals, and other places; but even
if this be true, a bird with such a pronounced taste for grain would, if
abundant, always be a menace to ripening crops. The following tabu-
lar statement shows the principal elements of the food:
vod of Brewer's blackbird.
[NUMBER-OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January,7; February,7; March,4; April, no stomachs collected,
May, 7; June, 10; July, 10; August, 21, September, 38; October, 14; November, 10; December, 15.
Total, 146.]
| |
| . uw a ty ge
Ble] 2le/2ig| g
Food. a | 2 a : : q 3 = ae) %
Be BEN ee 2) ee eee | Be i) Bee | ae
64.6 a e = 3 = & > oe & =
= 1 s 5 a 5 a
5 & ¥ A 5 ae sa n © a a <
ANIMAL, Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Prr- | Per- | Per- | Por- | Per- | Per- Per- | Per-
cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | ecnt. | cent | eent.! cent. | cent. cent. | cent.
Predaceous beetles; 5.0 | 0.6 |...... ORS) tt Bus! (exer SOON 109 ian Syl at ee
Snout-bectles......)...... 0.4] 2.0) 29.0] 4. ON | Rr ONS cereus 2° O89) Bab
Other bectles...... 3.4 | 3.0] 0.3} 3.0 | 13.7 BS! 0.6) O83 | Of) O97) O89) 27
Wasps, ants, cte..../.0002. b Oa} x52) ese) BOs) adel SpbeS: I) OSG” EOE Neen : OF |) 25
Grasshoppers ......|...... 0.2] 20.5 33.38 | 26.8] 8.2 147.5 | 88.1] 0.6 |...... 7.1) 16.1
Other insects ...... 1.0! 4.0} 22.4; 9.0] 10.6 |...... O06] 11! O8] S409] 54
Total animal
POOO < cicieecsse KE! 8.8) ABS | 75.6 621 [12.9 | o7.4 | 86.3] 9.0 | 18.2 | 10.4 | 81.8
VEGETABLE, | .
A IRINTUIN, st ssc itaecsxercvctone 90,6 | 77.1 | 68.2 5 21,0 | 32.7] 71.9 | 298 | AST | 84] 71.8 | 81.7 | 60.3
Other vegetable
POUT sexes stannsrspersrecen eres: W.6) 10) 86] 562])162) 28] 15.6] 5.6115.0] 7.9) 7.9
Total vegetu- |
ble food ...] 0.6 | 91.7 | 542] 26 | 37.9 | 871 32.6 | 63,7 | 91.0 | 86.8 | 89.6 | 68.2
1Tr.= trace,
‘Ontario Observer, June 3, 1899.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 53
THE CROW BLACEKBIRD.!
( Quiscalus quiscula. )
Throughout the Eastern States and Mississippi Valley the grackle,
or crow blackbird, is one of the most familiar and conspicuous birds.
It appears in spring and early summer about farmhouses and villages,
where it finds its favorite nesting places. Five different kinds occur
within our borders, but the present paper is concerned only with the
common purple grackle (Quéscalus guiscula) and its two subspecies, the
bronzed grackle (Quéscalus g. eneus) and the Florida grackle (Quzsea/us
q. agleus). The purple grackle is abundant in the region east of the
Alleghenies as far north as New York, and is found sparingly in New
Fie. 6.—Crow Blackbird.
»» England. The Florida grackle is distributed over the region extend-
ing from the coast of South Carolina southward into the peninsula of
Florida and westward to Louisiana. The bronzed grackle occupies
the Mississippi Valley and Great Plains as far west as the Rocky Moun-
tains, ranges northward to Great Slave Lake and southern Newfound-
land, and east to the coast of southern New England.
In Canada and the Northern Uniied States the crow blackbird is
only asummer resident, but in the Southern States it is present
throughout the year, and in winter its numbers are increased hy mil-
lions of migrants from the North, which find here a congenial winter
Revised and republished from the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for
1894, pp. 233-248, with the addition of new material.
54 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
home. It does not occur south of the Gulf States, but stragglers
have been found during the cold months as far north as Tlinois and
even Minnesota.
At the first approach of spring the crow blackbirds begin to move
northward, closely following the retreat of winter. During the sum-
mer months they cover the whole of the United States east of the
Rocky Mountains, except New England, though they are most plenti-
fully distributed over the great grain-raising States of the Northwest.
In New England crow blackbirds are of local occurrence. They are
tolerably abundant in Connecticut, but in the more northern States
breed only in certain favored localities, and are entirely absent from
large areas.
In the Northern United States the southward movement begins
about the end of September, although the habit of collecting in flocks
immediately after the breeding season causes the birds to disappear
from many localities during the month of August. Their stay in the
northern part of the country is thus limited to the six warmest months
of the year; hence whatever they do that is either beneficial or inju-
rious must be accomplished during that time. In the South, on the
contrary, they are found throughout the year, and in largely increased
numbers during the winter. Fortunately, however, the time of their
greatest abundance is not the season of growing crops, so that the
damage done is principally confined to the pilfering of grain left
standing in the shock. It is probable, however, that at this season
they feed largely on weed seeds, mast, and waste grain scattered in
the field.
Crow blackbirds are gregarious, usually breeding in colonies and
migrating in flocks. In fall, young and old collect in large assem-
blages, which in the Mississippi Valley often grow to enormous size.
The redwing (alyclatus phen/ceus), Brewer's blackbird (Scolecophagus
cyanucephalus), and the rusty blackbird GS. carol/nus) often associate
withthem. Moving southward, immense flocks cross the Red River Val-
ley between Texas and Indian Territory. In September, 1886, Mr.
George H. Ragsdale reported at Gainesville, on the Texas side of the
river, ‘flocks of such size that the roar of their wings could be heard
for a quarter of aiile,” and that, according to a statement published
in a local paper, one person had on hand 8,000 blackbirds which had
been netted for the use of gun clubs. Mr. Ragsdale stated that at the
same time the grass worm was destroying the crab-grass and purslane,
and attributed the unusually large flocks of blackbirds to the fact
that the early fall migrants, finding so many worms, had halted until
the bulk of the birds drifted southward. About the first of October
the worms and birds disappeared simultancously.
Jrow blackbirds are well known to the farmer as foragers about
the barnyard and pigpen. When they arrive in spring, after their long
journey from the South, they are apt to depend on the corncrib for
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 55
some of their first meals; but when the plow begins its work they are
on the alert, and follow it up and down the furrows, seizing every grub
or other insect that may be turned up. Their industry in this respect
is very noticeable, and if not disturbed or frightened in any way they
often become so tame as scarcely to get out of the way of the team in
their eager search for food. Very soon a nest is built, and in a short
time four or more gaping mouths demand to be filled, and the parent
birds must then work harder and go farther afield to provide for the
increased number of stomachs. When the cherries and other early
fruits ripen, the birds take a share for themselves thinking, no doubt,
that they are fairly entitled to them for the good work they did earlier
in the season. When the corn ‘comes into the milk’ they also take a
portion.
In the selection of food the crow blackbird is almost omnivorous. Its
partiality for corn, wheat, rice, oats, and other grain is well known, and
is the cause of nearly all the complaints about its depredations. This
diet is supplemented by various fruits, berries, nuts, seeds, and insects,
the last in large proportion. But the character of the food varies
materially with the season. During the fall and winter blackbirds
subsist largely on seeds and grain, as spring approaches they become
more insectivorous, in summer they take small fruits, and in September
they attack the ripening corn; but at all seasons they probably select
the food that is most easily obtained.
To this varied diet are due the conflicting statements respecting the
useful or noxious habits of the species. When feeding on grain, the
birds are usually in large flocks and their depredations are plainly
visible. When breeding they are less gregarious, and the good work
they do in the fields is scarcely noticed, although at this season the
grubs and other insects devoured compensate in large measure for
the grain taken at other times. As Mr. N. W. Wright, of Farmland,
Ind., aptly says, ‘It is hard to tell on which side to place the crow
blackbirds, for we can see the damage done, but not the benefits.”
During the spring they destroy many noxious insects. Prof. D. E.
Lantz states that at Manhattan, Kans., from the time of their arrival
until August they feed almost entirely upon cutworms, and Prof.
Herbert Osborne, writing from Ames, Iowa, reports that during the
spring of 1883 he saw them destroy great numbers of May-bectles
(Lachnosterna fusca), and found them feeding on them for several weeks.
Grasshoppers, crickets, locusts, and other insects are also largely eaten.
Mr. J. Percy Moore, of Philadelphia, Pa., wrote in 1585:
During the recent visit of the 17-year cicada this species [the purple grackle]
devoured immense numbers of pupze and imagos. It also ate large numbers of the
grubs of the June bug, which it generally obtained by searching in the furrows in
newly plowed fields, and all stages of the Carolina and uther grasshoppers, the com-
mon white butterfly (1 saw one catch several of this species on the wing May 26,
1885), and other species not identified.
56 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
Mr. W. B. Hall, of Wakeham, Ohio, gives an interesting account
of some young grackles which were kept in captivity. He says:
I have captured the young and confined them in a cage in such manner that the
old bird could not reach the mouth of the young. The food brought consisted
largely of larvze of Coleopterous and Lepidopterous insects, with an occasional beetle.
If freshly plowed fields were in the vicinity the food consisted largely of the white
grub and cutworm, a few tent caterpillars, one worm that I took to be a small Atiacus,
and beetles of the genera Galerita, Cetonia, Lachnosterna, and their kindred.
An estimate of the amount of food required to support a large flock
of blackbirds has been made by Mr. H. H. Johnstin, of London, Ohio.
During the-autumn of 1894 he counted 1,100 blackbirds one morning
as they left their roosting places for the feeding grounds, and estimated
the birds which flew by at 50,000. Allowing 2 ounces as the quantity
of food collected by each bird during the day, he arrived at the con-
clusion that 6,250 pounds, or more than 3 tons, of food was consumed
by this army of blackbirds in a single day. Even if the number of
birds in this case is not overestimated, the amount of food per bird is
undoubtedly too great. The species of blackbirds to which these notes
refer are not stated, but it is safe to assume that the flocks were
made up of redwings (Agelaius) and crow blackbirds (Quescalus). A
full stomach of the crow blackbird, selected at random from specimens
in the collection of the Biological Survey, was found to weigh 0.158
ounce, or 2.53 drams, while the contents of another stomach weighed
only 0.116 ounce, or 1.85 drams. The average of two full stomachs
of red-winged blackbirds was 0.049 ounce, or 0.78 dram, and the
stomach contents of a third weighed only 0.021 ounce, or 0.33 dram.
While of course these figures do not give the quantity of food a bird
consumes in twenty-four hours, they show that the full stomach of a
blackbird weighs comparatively little. In order to consume 1 ounce
of food per day a crow blackbird must eat six or eight full meals,
according to the kind of food, and the redwing three or four times as
many. At thisrate the amount consumed by the flock of 50,000 birds
would be about a ton and a half per day. These figures are undoubt-
edly still too large, but they serve to give a slight hint of the quantity
of grain a large flock could destroy.
The accusations against the crow blackbird, briefly stated, relate
nainly to the destruction of grain, expecially corn, soon after planting
in the spring, and again in the autumn, when the corn is ‘in the milk’
and nearly ripe. In the Southern States rice ix also destroyed by
grackles. Tn some sections they are said to feed upon young grain in
such quantities as seriously to injure the value of the crop, and for this
reason they are poisoned in large numbers. A more effectual method
is to prevent the birds from taking the seed by tarring the corn hefore
itis planted, This is better, simpler, and cheaper than the wholesale
destruction of the birds.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 57
Mr. 8. T. Kimbaii, of Ellington, Conn., says:
As a rule, farmers here tar their corn, but last June I sowed some without tarring,
and the result was that by the time it was out of the ground the blackbirds had
attacked it. They worked all day, carrying their bills full—load after load—to a
cemetery where there is quite a colony. They kept this up till the corn was entirely
absorbed by the stalk, although I shot some five or six of them.
Mr. George K. Cherrie states that in Monona County, Iowa, during
the spring of 1884, both the crow blackbird and the yellow-headed
blackbird did considerable damage by pulling the corn just as it came
through the ground, and were poisoned in great numbers by corn
which had been soaked in water containing arsenic. Similar depreda-
tions are sometimes committed in the rice fields of the South.
According to Mr. W. C. Percy, jr., of Bayou Goula, La., the crow
blackbirds destroy rice and corn at that place to a great extent, and
would do so totally were not men stationed with guns. They eat it in
planting time only. ;
In the autumn, when the corn begins to ripen, the fields are again
visited by blackbirds in larger flocks than in the spring, and the birds
renew their work of destruction. My. Daniel S. Wardsworth reports
that ina field of 2 acres near Hartford, Conn., the grackle has been
known to ruin from one-third to one-half of a crop of corn ‘in the
milk’ or when ripe. A similar complaint was made by Mr. George
H. Selover, of Lake City, Minn.
Mr. S. Powers, of Lawtey, Fla., writes that in the section where
he lives corn is left on the stalk as long as possible, to escape the
weevils, and the blackbirds eat the ends of many ears, sometimes one-
third of their length.
Another accusation often made against the crow blackbird is that it
destroys the eggs and young of other birds. A cursory examination
of the statements of writers shows that very few are based on original
observation; the majority are either repeated from the observations
‘of others or are taken from published accounts of the bird’s habits.
It can not be doubted, from the statements which have been made, that
these birds do occasionally destroy the eggs of the robin, bluebird,
chipping sparrow, small flycatchers, and other species, and more rarely
the young of the robin. But stomach examination offers little cor-
roborative evidence. Of 2,346 stomachs, only 37 contained any trace
of birds’ eggs, and 1 contained the bones of a young bird. These
were distributed as follows: In April, 9; May, 9; June, 7; July, 7;
and August, 5. The greatest quantity of eggshell was found in May,
aggregating forty-six one-hundredths of one percent of the stomach
contents for that month. This certainly does not show that black-
birds are much given to robbing their neighbors. Further, the egg-
shells found in a number of stomachs were identified as those of
domesticated fowls, and were probably obtained from compost heaps,
58 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
where they had been thrown. Hence, it seems fair to infer that the
erackle indulges its nest-robbing proclivities only occasionally, and
that the prevalence of the habit has been considerably exaggerated.
The crow blackbird, by reason of its habits, numbers, and wide dis-
tribution over the eastern part of our country, is so conspicuous
among the native birds that much valuable information concerning
its food habits is contained in previous publications.
Wilson refers to it as a ‘noted depredator’ that ‘is well known to
every careful farmer of the Northern and Middle States,’ and says:
About the 20th of March the purple grakles visit Pennsylvania from the south, fly
in loose flocks, frequent swamps and meadows, and follow in the furrows after the
plough; their food at this season consisting of worms, grubs, and caterpillars, of
which they destroy prodigious numbers, as if to recompense the husbandman before-
hand for the havoe they intend to make among his crops of Indian corn. * * *
The trees where these birds build are often at no great distance from the farm house,
and overlook the plantations. From thence they issue, in all directions, and with as
much confidence, to make their daily depredations among the surrounding fields, as
if the whole were intended for their use alone. Their chief attention, however, is
directed to the Indian corn in all its progressive stages. As soon as the infant blade
of this grain begins to make its appearance above ground, the grakles hail the wel-
come signal with screams of peculiar satisfaction, and, without waiting for a formal
invitation from the proprietor, descend on the fields and begin to pull up and regale
themselves on the seed, scattering the green blades around. * * * About the
beginning of August, when the young ears are in their milky state, they are attacked
with redoubled eagerness by the grakles and redwings, in formidable and combined
bodies. They descend like a blackening, sweeping tempest on the corn, dig off the
external covering of twelve or fifteen coats of leaves, as dexterously as if done by the
hand of man, and, having laid bare the ear, leave little behind to the farmer but the
cobs, and shriveled skins, that contained their favorite fare. I have seen fields of
corn of many acres, where more than one-half was thus ruined. Indeed the farmers
in the immediate vicinity of the rivers Delaware and Schuylkill, generally allow one-
fourth of this crop to the blackbirds, among whom our grakle comes in for his full
share.
* * * As some consolation, however, to the industrious cultivator, I can assure
him, that were I placed in his situation, I should hesitate whether to consider these
birds most as friends or enemies, as they are particularly destructive to almost all the
noxious worms, grubs, and caterpillars, that infest his fields, which, were they allowed
to multiply unmolested, would soon consume nine-tenths of all the production of his
lalour, and desolate the country with the miseries of famine.'
Nuttall speaks of the bird’s destructiveness in the cornfield in much
the same terms, and adds:
Up to the time of harvest, I have uniformly, on dissection, found their food to
consist of these larvic, caterpillars, moths, and leetles, of which they devour such
numbers, that but for this providential economy, the whole crop of grain, in many
places, would probably be destroyed by the time it began to germinate. In winter
they collect the mast of the beech and oak for food, and aay be seen assembled in
large bodies in the woods for this pune? a
TAin, ‘Guitth, Edinburgh fils Vol. I, pp. 227-230, 1831.
*Manual of Ornith., Land Birds, pp. 195-196, 1832.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 59
Mr. C. J. Maynard repeats the charges of depredations in the corn-
field, but contends that their trait of robbing nests of other birds is by
far the worst damage they do. He says:
They will visit the homes of those species which build in accessible situations and:
deliberately remove the eggs or, what is more to be deplored, the helpless young and
devour them in spite of the cries of the distracted parents who are powerless to pre-
vent the outrage. * * * So frequently were these depredations committed upon
the homes of the Robins and other birds, that built about my place this season, that.
there was scarcely an hour in the day during early summer when I could not hear
the warning cries of the adult birds, followed by the harsh, scolding notes of the
Crow Blackbird as he was vigorously attacked on all sides, but he seldom retreated
without accomplishing his purpose. Such continuous slaughter must greatly thin
the ranks of the birds that are thus robbed and it will be safe to say that the Purple
Grackles destroy more birds than all the other predatory species combined. * * *
In Florida * * * they also eat avariety of food. In early Winter large flocks.
may be seen on the tops of the palmettos, feeding on the fruit, and they also eat
berries in their season. Later small flocks are found on the margin of streams, fre-
quently wading into them in search of little mollusks, crabs, etc., and it is not rare
to meet with one or two scattering individuals in the thick hummocks, overturning
the leaves in order to find insects or small reptiles which they devour. I once saw
one catch a lizard which was crawling over the fan-like frond of a palmetto, and fly
with it to the ground. The reptile squirmed all the while in its frantic endeavors to
escape, but the Blackbird held it firmly and, after beating it to death, removed the
skin as adroitly as if accustomed to the operation, then swallowed the body.?
Dr. B. H. Warren says as a result of his investigations of the food
of the crow blackbird:
In the wake of the plowman, as he turns the crumbling earth, closely follow the
argus-eyed Grackles, ever on the alert to seize the wriggling worm, the agile beetle,
or the glistening grub, and the numerous Jarvz thrown out as each furrow is turned.
Certainly, at this season our sable acquaintances are engaged only in that which will
prove of utility to the cultivator when his crops are growing. We repeatedly hear
of how the blackbirds tear up and devour the young and growing corn. This,
unquestionably, is sometimes the case, but I am confident that the destruction thus
done is much exaggerated. I am aware that on more than one occasion I have seen
the tender blades of corn lying on the ground where were actively at work Crow
Blackbirds, a number of which were shot, and on a post-mortem dissection their
stomachs revealed almost entirely insects. Some six years ago I was visiting a friend
who had thirty-odd acres of corn (maize) planted. Quite a number of ‘“‘blackies,”’ as
he styled them, were plying themselves with great activity about the growing cereal.
We shot thirty-one of these birds feeding in the corn field. Of this number nineteen
showed only cut-worms in their stomachs. The number of cut-worms in each, of
course, varied, but as many as twenty-two were taken from one stomach. In seven
some corn was found, in connection with a very large excess of insects, to wit: Beetles,
earth-worms, and cut-worms. The remaining five showed chiefly beetles. * * *
Strawberries, blackberries and other fruits are fed upon, but to a very limited
extent, by this species. The diet of the young birds, while under parental care, is
almost exclusively insectivorous, consisting mainly of caterpillars and grubs.
It is a well-established fact that they are given to pillaging the eggs of other birds,
especially the common Robin. Gentry, however, states that they destroy the young
of birds, a fact, as yet, unobserved by the writer.’
1 Birds of Eastern N. A., pp. 149-150, 1881.
? Birds of Pa., revised ed., pp. 221-222, 1890.
60 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES,
Nearly 2,500 crow blackbird stomachs have been examined in the
laboratory of the Biological Survey, of which 2,346 contained food;
the remainder were empty. These stomachs were obtained from
twenty-seven States, the District of Columbia, and Canada (see p. 75),
Nebraska and Dakota are the most western States in which any were col-
lected, and Florida and Texas the most southern. The stomachs were
taken during every month in the year, but as the great body of the
birds leaves the Northern States in October and does not return until
Mareh, but few stomachs could be procured in November, December,
January, and February. Great pains were taken to secure a large
number during the breeding months of May and June, with the result
that « little more than half of the whole collection was obtained at
this time. Observation has shown that the food of young birds often
differs materially from that of the adults, and in order to test this
point +56 nestlings were collected in May and June.
The food of the whole year, taking into account all the 2,346 stom-
achs, young and adult, comprised 30.3 percent animal, and 69.7 per-
cent vegetable matter. The animal food was found to be composed of
insects, spiders, myriapods, crayfish, earthworms, sowbugs, hair snakes,
snails, fish, tree toads, salamanders (newts), lizards, snakes, birds’ eggs,
and mice.
Insect food constitutes 27 per cent of the entire food for the year,
and is the most interesting part of the bird’s diet from an economic
point of view.
When it is examined month by month, the smallest quantity appears
in February (less than 3 per cent of the whole food), but as only 8
stomachs were taken in this month the result can not be considered
very reliable. In March it rises to one-sixth, and steadily increases
till May, when it reaches its maximum of five-eighths of the whole; it
then decreases to one-sixth in October, and appears to rise again in
November, but the number of stomachs taken in: that month is too
small to warrant any general conclusions. The great number of insects
eaten in May and June is due in part to the fact that the young are fed
largely on this kind of food.
Analysis of the insect food presents many points of interest. Among
the most important families of beetles are the scarabeeids, of which the
common June hug or May-beetle and the rose bug are familiar exam-
ples. These insects are eaten, either as beetles or grubs, in every
month except January and November; in May they constitute more
(han one-fifth, and in June one-seventh of the entire food. The babit
grucklos have of following the plow to gather grubs is a matter of
common observation which has been fully confirmed by stomach exam-
inations, Many stomachs were found literally crammed with grubs,
and jn many more, where other food predominated, the hard jaws
showed that grubs had formed a goodly portion of a previous meal.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 61
The species most commonly found in the stomach belong to the well-
known genus Lachnosterna, or common May-beetle, several species of
dung-beetles belonging to the genera Aphodius and Atenius, and the
wonderfully brilliant Phancwus carnifex. The last is one of the most
conspicuously colored of all the beetles, being clad in green, purple,
and gold, which shade to crimson with the changing light. Whether
these splendid tints attract the birds’ attention, whether there is some
peculiarly agreeable flavor to recommend the insects as an article of
diet, or whether the simple fact of availability from their great abun-
dance impels the birds to eat them so freely is yet to be determined;
but, from whatever cause, a majority of the stomachs of all the grackles
taken in the Mississippi Valley during summer contained at least a
trace and often the remains of several of these beetles.
Curculios, snout-beetles or weevils, are eaten in every month of the
year, but, while they are taken in great numbers, the individuals are
so small that the percentage of bulk does not rise as high as in the case
of the scarabeids. The maximum is reached in June, when they con-
stitute more than 5 percent of the total food, with a gradual decrease
in the succeeding months. Insects of such small size could hardly be
obtained except by diligent search, and their presence in so many
stomachs (1,059), and also the large numbers in single stomachs (some-
times exceeding 40), warrants the conclusion that they are sought as
choice articles of food. The species most often eaten are Epiewrus
imbricatus, Phytonomus punctatus, Sitones hispidulus, and more rarely
Sphenophorus zew and other species of Sphenophorus. Of this last,
commonly known as the corn weevil, 17 were found in one stomach
and 14 in another.
Many other beetles were found in the stomachs, but, with one excep’
tion, in quantities too small to be of much economic interest. Thi
Colorado potato beetle was not present, but several species belonging
to the same family were identified. The one exception just referred
to is that of the carabids or predaceous beetles. These valuable
destroyers of noxious insects are eaten in every month of the year in
varying quantities, but with less variability than most other insects.
They constitute more than 7 percent of the food in January, attain a
maximum of 13 percent in June, and end with one-half percent in
December. From these figures it would seem that they are highly
prized by blackbirds; but there are other facts that have a bearing on
the case. Most carabid beetles are of fair size and easily seen, and
many of them are quite large; moreover, they live on the ground and
are much oftener seen running than flying. They are the first beetles
observed in spring, and are usually abundant at all times when insects
are to be found. Since blackbirds seek a great portion of their food
on the ground it is apparent that these beetles must naturally fall in
their way oftener than any others, and so are freely eaten, especially
62 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
if other fodd be wanting. They may thus be eaten more from necessity
than from choice. It does not, however, necessarily follow that birds
are doing harm by eating insects that on account of their food habits
are classed as useful. This point has been fully elucidated by other
writers, notably by Prof. 8. A. Forbes.’
Next in importance to beetles as an article of blackbird diet are
the grasshoppers. For convenience, grasshoppers, locusts (green
grasshoppers), and crickets are considered in the same category, but
of the three the true grasshoppers were by far the most numerous in
the stomachs, and are eaten in every month except January. They
constitute less than 1 percent of the total February food, and the fact
that they are found at all in this month indicates that the birds are keen
hunters, for it would puzzle an entomologist to find grasshoppers in
February in most of the Northern States. It is probable that some
of those eaten in this and the succeeding month are dead insects, left
over from the previous year. The proportion of grasshoppers in the
stomachs increases with each month up to August, when it attains a
maximum of 23.4 percent of all the food. It is worthy of note that
crickets, considered apart from grasshoppers, reach their maximum in
June, when they form a little more than 5 percent of the monthly food.
After August the grasshopper diet falls off, but even in November
it still constitutes 9 percent of the total for the month. The fre-
quency with which these insects appear in the stomachs, the great
numbers found in single stomachs (often more than 30), and the
fact that they are fed largely to the young, all point to the conclusion
that they are preferred as an article of food, and are eagerly sought at
all times. The good that is done hy their destruction can hardly be
verestimated, particularly as many of the grasshoppers found in the
mach were females filled with eges.
Caterpillars form another interesting element of this bird’s food.
‘Yhey were found throughout the year, except in November, and aver-
age 2.3 percent in each month. In May a maximum of something
more than 8 percent is reached, followed by a little less than + per-
cent in June, and falling below this through the remainder of the year.
The famous army worm (Levernda unipunctd) was identified in about
half w dozen stomachs.
Most persons who have picked and eaten berries from the bushes
haye had the disagrecable experience of getting into their mouths a
small bug which is a little too highly flavored to suit the taste of the
human race, but which is eaten by the crow blackbird in every month
from February to October, inclusive. These bugs are not, however,
consumed in large quantities, probably for the reason that great num-
bers ean not be found; still, traces of them appear in many stomachs,
indicating that the birds eat as many as they find.
Bull. IML. State Lah. Nat. Hlist., Vol. I, No. 3, Nov., 1880.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 63
In addition to the insects specified, representatives of several other
orders were found, but not in such large or regular quantities as to
render them an important element of food. Hymenoptera are repre-
sented mostly by ants, while flies are entirely absent, being probably
too lively to be taken by such sluggish birds. Spiders and myriapods
(chousand-legs) were noted in sufficient numbers to demand recogni-
tion. They are eaten to some extent during every month, but not, as
arule. in large quantities. The spiders attain a maximum of more
than 7 percent in May, and not only the spiders themselves, but their
cocoons full of eggs appear to be taken whenever found. The myria-
pods are eaten somewhat less frequently, but appear in nearly every
month.
Crustaceans, represented by crayfish, are very commonly eaten,
though they do not constitute a large percentage of the food. It often
happens that the only trace of these creatures found in a bird’s stom-
ach consists of the gastroliths, or ‘stomach stones,’ which are two
saucer-shaped calcareous bodies found one on each side of the cray-
fish’s stomach. One grackle, taken in Iowa, had no less than 26 of
these stomach stones in its stomach. It seems hardly probable that
this bird had eaten 13 crayfish at one meal or within a very short time,
and it is possible that the gastroliths had been picked up on the banks
of a pond or stream where the crustaceans had died and left their
remains. In addition to crayfish, a few sowbugs (Oniscus) were found
in some of the stomachs.
Snails of various species, both terrestrial and aquatic, with a few
small bivalve mollusks, are also eaten by blackbirds, but, like the
crustaceans, they form only a small percentage of the food. It might
at first be supposed that these creatures were taken for the sake of the
lime in their shells, as an aid in forming the eggshells of the black-
birds, but we find that they are eaten by both adult and young birds,
by both sexes and at all seasons, which precludes the idea that the
lime is used exclusively for this purpose. Earthworms were found in
only a few stomachs, their scf@ being noticed in a few others; but
such soft and probably easily digested creatures are difficult to iden-
. tify when they have been in the stomach a short time, and so may be
easily overlooked.
The vertebrate food of the grackles consists of mice, birds and
their eggs, lizards, snakes, frogs and salamanders (newts), and. fish.
So few remains of mice were found that these mammals can hardly be
considered a legitimate article of the birds’ diet. Birds and their egos
have been already discussed. Lizards’ remains were found in a few
stomachs taken in Florida, and the vertebre of snakes were found
occasionally, but not often. Frogs, tree toads, and salamanders are
eaten, but not frequently, and do not appear to be a favorite food, or
else are not easily taken. The same may be said of the fish whose
bones appear now and then in the stomachs.
G4 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
The vegetable component of the stomach contents is as variable and
diversified as the animal food, showing plainly that when one article
of diet is wanting the bird can make up the deficiency by eating some-
thing clse that is more cusily obtained. The following list includes
all the vegetable substances identified in the stomachs, but there were
some that could not be positively determined. The pulp of fruit,
when unaccompanied by seeds and already half digested, is difficult to
distinguish with precision, and this is also true of the hulls or skins
left after kernels of grain have been digested and passed; but the total
of such unrecoenized matter is not great.
Vegetable substances found in stomachs of crow blackbirds,
Grain: Seeds and nuts:
Corn. Poison ivy (Rhus radicans).
Oats. Harmless sumac (Rhus glabra et al.).
Wheat. Bayberries (Myrica cerifera).
Rye. Hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana).
Buckwheat. Chestnuts and chinquapins (Castanea
Fruit: dentata and pumila).
Blackberries and raspberries.
Straw berries.
Cherries (cultivated).
Mulberries.
Beechnuts (Fagus atropunicea).
Acorns (Quercus).
Weeds:
Ragweed (Ambrosia).
Currants. Barngrass ( Chetocloa).
Grapes. Gromwell (Lithospermum).
Apples. Smartweed (Polygonum).
Blueberries and cranberries ( Vaccin-
ium gp.).
Huckleberries ((aylussacia sp. ).
Dogwood berries (Coris sp.).
Elderberries (Sambucvs sp. ).
Chokeherries (Aronia arbutifolia).
Service berries (Amelanchicr camaden-
sis.)
Pokeweed (Phytolacca).
Sorrel (Rumex).
Miscellaneous:
Small bulbs or tubers.
Galls containing larvee.
Pieces of plant stems.
Bits of grass and leaves.
Thorn of locust (Robinia).
Pieces of rotton wood.
Hackberries (Ceilis occidentalis),
Of all the various items of food, the chief interest centers about the
grain and fruit, for it is through their consumption that blackbirds
inflict the greatest damage upon the farmer; in fact, the worst
that has been said of the grackles is that they cat large quantities of
grain. OF the five grains named in the list corn is the favorite, hav-
ing been found in 1,321 stomachs, or more than 56 percent of the
whole number, Tt is eaten at all seasons of the year; and in every
month except January, Jul y, August, and November amounts to more
than one-half of the total vegetable food. The corn obtained in
winter and until planting in the spring can he but little loss to the
farmer, as it must be mostly waste wrain. This view was fully con-
firmed hy the contents of a series of stomachs taken in early spring,
which consisted to a great extent of corn that had evidently been wet
and frozen, and had Jain out all winter. After F ebruary there isa
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 65
decrease in the quantity of corn eaten until July, when it reaches a
minimum of 7.7 percent. May shows no increase over the preceding
months, although it is the tithe for planting; nor is there an important
increase in June, the month of sprouting corn in the North. In fact,
very little evidence was found to indicate that blackbirds pull up
sprouting grain. In this respect they differ conspicuously from the
crow. In August corn amounts to one-seventh of the whole food,
and this, together with a part of that taken in September, is green
corn ‘in the milk.? The maximum amount, 82 percent, is eaten in
February, but this, as already stated, is chiefly waste. In September
and October, on the other hand, when corn constitutes 53.2 and 51.5
percent, respectively, of the food totals, it is undoubtedly all taken
from the fields of standing corn, representing so much good grain con-
tributed by the farmer; and in the Middle and Western States, where
grain often stands in the fields until December, the November corn
food must be obtained in the same way.
Oats, which are eaten in very irregular quantities in every month
except January, November, and December, form much less of the
food than corn. They appear in the greatest amount in April (a little
more than one-seventh of the total food), fall to less than 1 percent
in June, but rise to more than 9 percent in August. The oats eaten
in April are probably picked up from newly sown fields, and it is
likely that those taken in August and September are gleaned from
fields after harvest, while those found in the other months are acci-
dental and of no importance.
Wheat is eaten in every month from April to September, inclusive,
but makes very little showing except in July and August, when it
forms 26 percent of the whole food, these being the only months of
the year in which it reaches a higher percentage than corn. As July
and August are the months of the wheat harvest, it is easy to account
for the large amount eaten at that time; but whether the grain so eaten
is taken from the standing crop, or consists merely of scattered ker-
-nels gleaned after the harvest, is not manifest from stomach examina-
tion. Probably the birds take whichever is more accessible.
Rye was found in only one stomach and buckwheat in nine. The
former was from a bird taken in May in Pennsylvania, and is evi-
dently not a favorite food. Three birds taken in New Jersey in Feb-
ruary were found to have eaten a small quantity of buckwheat. A
single bird killed in July in New York and one killed in September
in Iowa had also eaten this grain, as had four birds that were all taken
at once in November in New Jersey. The buckwheat eaten in Febru-
ary and November must have been waste grain, and the fact that
birds from the same localities, taken at the time when this grain was
harvested, had not eaten it, indicates that it is not a desirable food and
is eaten only under stress of hunger.
3074—No. 183——_5
66 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
According to reports from the Southern States, crow blackbirds
prey upon rice in company with other blackbirds and the bobolink,
but unfortunately the collection contains few stomachs from this
region, so that no corroborative evidence is at hand.
Although fruit of some kind is eaten in every month from March to
December, inclusive, it does not become important until June. In
June, July, and August it reaches 7, 13, and 10 percent, respec-
tively. This aggregate is made up from a number of elements (see
p. 64), but the only ones likely to possess any economic interest
are blackberries, raspberries, cherries, currants, grapes, and apples.
Apple pulp was found in 3 stomachs, grapes in 3, currants in 1, cherries
in 87 in June and 14 in July, and strawberries in 7. The blackberries
and raspberries were the favorites, and made up the great bulk of the
fruit eaten. They were eaten from May to September, inclusive, but
only a few in each month, except in July and August, when they were
found in 96 and 68 stomachs, respectively. When we consider that
the latter fruits are much more abundant in the wild than in the
cultivated state, and bear in mind the small amount of other fruit
eaten, it certainly must appear that the damage to fruit by crow black-
birds is of no great moment. None of the wild fruits mentioned in
the table were found in Jarge quantities or in many stomachs.
Mast, under which term are included chestnuts, chinquapins, acorns,
and beechnuts, forms quite an important element in the fall and early
spring months. It constitutes the principal part of the vegetable food
of the 7 stomachs taken in January and does not appear in the 8 Feb-
ruary stomachs to an important extent; but this record, based on only
15 stomachs, can not be considered very reliable. It composes about
10 percent of the March food, but decreases through the ensuing
months till September, when it again becomes an important element
and so continues through the rest of the year.
Weed seeds form another interesting element of vegetable food and
are of considerable importance in the colder months. Beginning in
February, they constitute more than 7 percent of the food, increase
slightly in March, and then gradualiy diminish until they almost dis-
appear in June, but again increase to « maximum of more than 11
percent in October. As all the plants included in this category are
nuisances, it is, perhaps, needless to say that by eating their seeds
the birds are doing good work.
The mineral component of the stomach contents possesses little,
if wny, economic interest, but it is curious to note how many differ-
ent things a blackbird can pick up. Sand, gravel, pieces of brick,
bits of mortar, plaster of paris, charcoal, hard coal, and cinders were
the most common of the various hard substances which helped to line
the mill in which their grist was ground. A glass bead was found in
one stomach, Much of the gravel from stomachs of birds taken m
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 67
Kansas was found to contain fossil remains of corals, crinoid stems,
shells, ete.
As previously stated, 456 nestlings are included in the 2,346 birds
whose food has been already discussed. A separate study was made
of these, in order to ascertain in what respect, if any, their food dif-
fered from that of the adults. It would have given more satisfactory
results if it had been possible to separate the younger nestlings—say
those under 1 week of age—from the older ones, for it was noticed
that as the young approach maturity and get ready to fly, their food
becomes more like that of their parents. The young were collected
from May 22 to June 30, inclusive, and represent every age, from the
newly hatched to those about to leave the nest. The whole food,
when separated into its two principal components, was found to be as
follows: Animal matter, 74.4 percent; vegetable, 25.6 percent. The
much higher percentage of animal food in the young as compared
with the adults (30.3 percent) is at once noticeable, although it may
be insisted that the food of the young should be compared with that
of the adults in the corresponding season; that is, in the months of
May and June. If this view be taken, the difference is not so great,
The percentage of mineral matter in the stomachs is also a little
greater than in the case of adults.
The animal food is practically the same as that of the parent birds,
and likewise consists chiefly of insects. These amount to 70 percent,
43 percent more than in the adults. The animal food other than
insects, amounting to less than 5 percent, is not important enough to
merit attention. The insect food is made up of about the same kinds
as are eaten by the old birds, but in somewhat different proportions.
Adult beetles, on account of their hard shells, are not fed to very
young birds, but a few are given to the older ones. Grubworms (the
larvee of scarabeids) are fed freely after the first or second day. A
little more than 19 percent of the food of the nestlings consists of
this family of beetles, and for the most part in the form of the larve
or grubs. Predaceous beetles (carabids) constitute about 10 percent
of the food, weevils a little more than 3 percent, and there were
traces of five or six other families, none of which reached 1 percent.
Grasshoppers and crickets, the former predominating, are a favorite
food for the young, being softer and more easily digested than beetles.
They constitute more than 21 percent of the total food. This is nearly
as much as the parent birds consume in August, and three times as much
as they eat in May and June, when they are feeding the young. This
shows that they select the grasshoppers and other soft insects for their
offspring, while they eat beetles and other hard things themselves.
Caterpillars constitute 6 percent of the food of the young birds,
which is not as much as might be expected when we consider how soft
and apparently well adapted they are for this purpose.
68 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
Besides the insects already mentioned, small quantities of ants,
flies, bugs, May-flies, myriapods, and spiders were given to the young.
These last merit a special notice from the fact that they form the
earliest food of the bird. A number of tiny stomachs were examined,
evidently taken from birds less than 24 hours old. In nearly every
case they contained either a single spider or several very small ones—
undoubtedly the bird’s first meal. The very young stomachs are thin,
almost membranous sacs, entirely unlike the stout, muscular gizzards
of the adult birds, which explains why soft, easily crushed food is
required for the newly hatched young. It is only after they have
attained considerable growth and the stomach walls have become
somewhat muscular that they are able to digest such food as hard
beetles and corn.
The vegetable food of the young consists of corn and fruit, with
mere traces of half a dozen other things. Corn amounts to 15 percent
of the total food, but is fed only to the older birds, whose stomachs
have acquired the requisite muscular strength to digestit. Fruit con-
stitutes about 7 percent of the food, almost exactly the same quantity
as is consumed by the adults in the month of June, and consists of the
same varieties.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing results it appears that the food of the crow
blackbird for the whole year consists of animal and vegetable matter in
quite unequal proportions. Of the animal component, nine-tenths are
insects, and of the insects two-thirds are noxious species. The charge
that the blackbird is a habitual robber of other birds’ nests seems to
be disproved by the stomach examinations.
Of the vegetable food it has been found that corn constitutes more
than half and other grain less than one-seventh. Oats are seldom
eaten except in April and August, and wheat is taken chiefly in July
and August. Fruit is eaten in such moderate quantities that it has no
economic importance, particularly in view of the fact that so little
belongs to cultivated varieties.!
The farmer whose grain is damaged, if not wholly ruined, by these
birds, may attempt to count his loss in dollars and cents, but the good
services rendered by the same birds earlier in the season can not be
estimated with sufficient precision for entry on the credit side of the
ledger. And although the number of useful predaceous beetles they
destroy is rather large, yet it must be considered that the final value
of useful birds depends not so much on the character of the insects they
destroy as on the extent of their work in keeping the great tide of
‘In the appended table blackberrics, raspberries, and other fruits of the genus
Jiubus are classed as cultivated fruit, since it is impossible to distinguish the wild
from the cultivated in stomach examinations; but probably by far the greater part
comes from wild plants.
THE CROW BLACKBIRD. 69
insect life down to a proper level. The examination of the food of the
biackbirds has shown that they do a good share of this work, and are
therefore most emphatically useful birds—so useful that no general war
of extermination should be waged against them. This does not mean
that they do no harm, or that they should be permitted to do harm with-
out restraint. A bird whose diet contains 46.5 percent of grain must be
capable of considerable damage in any section of country where grain
is an important crop; and when blackbirds descend upon a corn or wheat
field in flocks of hundreds or thousands, they inflict a real loss, from
which the farmer should protect himself by any practicable means.
Still, crow blackbirds have not been complained of so much as red-
wings, and they probably do not ordinarily cause much loss to the
farmer, since such a large part of the grain they eat consists of scat-
tered or waste kernels. The local ravages they commit are usually
due to overcrowding in a restricted area, and when this occurs there
is no doubt that their numbers should be reduced.
The following table shows the percentage of each article of diet for
each month: :
Food of the crow blackbird.
{NUMBER OF STOMACHS EXAMINED: January,7; February,8; March,53; April,289; May, 348; June, 887;
July, 346; August, 197; September, 81; October, 111; November, 11; December, 8. Total, 2,346.]
5 tg]. felal,
Food. Fi E Fae %) & 3 F | 2
Pi, BIE LE) SB) ae] 2) hla; e]e] eg] sé
| Se fs hae |S |e Pe ee |e) S82) |
ANIMAL. Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per- | Per-
cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent.
Pred. beetles ..... 7.1] 038) 438] 63] 85/129] 11.1] 91) 31] 26) 15) 05) 5.6
May-beetle family |...... 0.1] 3.2] 6.8 | 22.0] 15.1} 80] 08] 06] 0.5 ]-..... 1.6) 4.9
Snout-beetles..... 2.9| 03] 1.2] 18] 35) 53] 44/ 21) L4] 04] O11] 07] 2.0
Other beetles..... DiS il ciate Sex Ey Be | ee || ASO esi} ©2094). Ob). Od eae 0.6} 1.0
Caterpillars ...... 43°) 053) Te2:) 2e3¢) (872 | B26 12) OF) WB Wed feoeees 3.1] 2.3
Grasshoppers .....]...... 0.6} O28 | 3.2)) BB | daeO TR | 28a) Sa) Be) 80) 8) We
Other insects ..... 3.0/ 03] 38] 29] 32) 29] 48] 19] 17] 23] 05] O04) 23
Spiders and myr- |
TapOds se.0h.a 20% 1.0] 05] 06] 23] 74] 29] 13] 05] O04] 06] 05] O6/] 1.5
Crustaceans and
mollusks ....... AVA {above 0.1] 1.6] 1.9] 2.4] 0.9] 02; 26] 23) 99) 31) 31
Vertebrates.......]....--|------ 122"), 058) | OE) 20-8 |) 2058] 20] ORE Are Woe everc iene 0.3
65.9 | 62.1 ) 45.9 | 39.7 | 20.3 | 17.0 | 21.5 | 12.5; 30.3
27.9.1 98.9) 9.7 | 14.0 | 58.2 | 91.5} 35,4 [478 | B72
2.2| 0.4] 5.2] 93] 11] 08]... 2.9
0.6| 0.2 | 26.1} 25.9] 0.8 |....--).-.---)------ 4.8
Othergrain.......|...... Bi7 levee ce 0.6] 0.3 ]...... 080! bccn Tr. | 0.8 | 10.5 |....-. 1.6
Domestic fruit....}...2..)...--- 0.4 |... itr,| 5.8/10.3] 91] 1.3] O4]....-. 8.2] 29
Wild fruit ........]....2.)..... 1.7/ 1.2] 04] 1.3] 27] 1.3] 1.5] 22] 45] 81] 22
Weed seed........|...... 73/106] 62! 0.4{1tr.| 0.6] 0.3) 2.5) 11.6] 11.6 ]...... 4.2
Mast, etc.......... 66.3] 04/104] 86] 3.0] 2.0] 1.3] 0.4 | 19.4 | 15.7 | 16.5 | 23.9 | 14.0
Total vegeta-
ble food ...| 67.7 | 97.6 | 82.4 | 73.2 | 34.1 | 87.9 | 54.1 | 60.3 | 79.8 | 83.0 | 78.5 | 87.5 | 69.7
1Tr. = trace.
70 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
The following is a list of the various insects identified in the stomachs
of crow blackbirds:
Insects found in stomachs of crow blackbirds,
Cicindela punctulata.
Cicindela purpurea.
Cychrus sp.
Carabus sp.
Calosoma scrutator.
Calosoma calidum.
Calosoma externum.
Pasimachus depressus.
Scarites subterraneus.
Amara sp.
Chieenius sp.
Agonoderus pallipes.
Harpalus caliginosus.
Harpalus pénnsylvanicus.
Helophorus inquinatus.
Olophrum convexum.
Scymnus sp.
Hister americanus.
Ips quadriguttatus.
Drasterius elegans.
Drasterius dorsalis.
Podabrus ruguiosus.
Canthon sp.
Phanzeus carnifex.
Onthophagus hecate.
Onthophagus pennsylvanicus.
Ateenius sp.
Aphodius fimetarius.
Aphodius inquinatus.
COLEOPTERA.
Bolbocerus farctus.
Geotrupes sp.
Dichelonycha elongata.
Macrodactylus subspinosus,
Lachnosterna sp.
Anomala varians.
Ligyrus gibbosus.
Allorhina nitida.
Euphoria fulgida.
Euphoria inda.
Cremastochilus sp.
Prionus sp.
Strangalia sp.
Cryptocephalus venustus,
Typophorus canellus.
Colaspis brunnea.
Chrysomela pulchra.
Gastroidea polygoni.
Haltica sp.
Dibolia sp.
Coptocycla signifera.
Eleodes tricostata.
Epiceerus imbricatus.
Phytonomus punctatus.
Sitones hispidulus.
Lixus sp.
Balaninus sp.
Sphenophorus zee, et al.
Calandra granaria.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Leucania unipuncta. Deilephila lineata.
HEMIPTERA,
Euschistus sp. Prionidus cristatus.
NEUROPTERA,
Corydalis cornutus.
THE BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE.
( Quisealus major. )
The hoat-tailed grackle, one of the largest of the blackbirds in the
United States, inhabits the South Atlantic and Gulf States from Vir-
ginia to Texas, and is not found at any great distance from the coast. |
\ THE BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE. 71
Its food habits have received but brief consideration from ornitholog-
ical writers. Audubon, whose account is apparently the best, says:
The food of this species consists principally of those small crabs called ‘fiddlers,’
of which millions are found along the margins of the rivers and mud-flats, as well as
of large insects of all kinds, ground-worms, and seeds, especially grains. * * * In
autumn, while the rice is yet in the stack, they commit considerable mischief by feed-
ing on the grain, although not so much as when it is in a juicy state, when the plant-
ers are obliged to employ persons to chase them from the fields.?
In the preliminary investigations made by the Biological Survey
there have been examined 116 stomachs from Florida, Georgia, and
Texas, representing every month in the year (see p. 76). The food
consists of 39.8 percent of animal matter and 60.2 percent of vegcta-
ble matter. The former is made up of insects and crustaceans, with a
few lizards, batrachians, small mammals, etc. Crustaceans amount to
about two-fifths of the animal food (15.6 percent of the total food),
and consist of crayfishes, crabs, and shrimps, which plainly indicate
the littoral habits of the species. No insects appear to be specially
sought. Predaceous beetles (Carabide) are eaten to the extent of 3.3
percent and are taken mostly in fall. Other beetles are eaten to some
extent, but no family isconspicuous. Grasshoppers are eaten in July
and August, to the extent of 31.9 and 47.7 percent, respectively, but
very few in any other month. The average for the year is 7.3 per-
cent. Various other insects form 9.7 percent of the food, but no order
is especially prominent. Six birds taken in Texas in September are
worthy of special mention from the fact that they had all eaten cotton-
ball worms (Heliothis armiger) in quantities varying from 26 to 93
percent of the food. While remains of small vertebrates are frequent
in the stomachs, they do not form an important element.
Grain constitutes 46.8 percent of the total food. Of this all but a
mere trace is corn, which composes part of the food of every month
except May—the only stomachs collected in this month came from
a vice field at Savannah, Ga., where corn was probably not readily
obtainable. In each month except May and November corn consti-
tutes more than half of the vegetable food, and in March, April. and
August it is the only vegetable matter taken. April shows the great-
est amount (92.7 percent of the total food), but as only 3 stomachs
were taken in this month, this result can hardly be regarded as a fair
average. The pulp of some large seed or nut, not otherwise identi-
fied, was the most important element next to corn. The remains of
figs were found in several stomachs and wild grapes in one, which
indicates that fruit is eaten, though sparingly. No weed seed was
found in any of the stomachs.
1 Qrnith. Biog., Vol. II, p. 504, 1835.
72 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
SUMMARY.
In summing up the results of the stomach examinations it is evident
that no very salient points in favor of the boat-tailed grackle have come
to light. In its insect food it has no very pronounced preferences, and
while it does not cause any great havoc among useful insects, it does
not prey extensively upon harmful ones. In common with most other
land birds, it eats grasshoppers freely in July and August, and it
would probably eat caterpillars as well if it found them more plentiful
than other food. The animal food it decidedly prefers is small crus-
tuceans, and these, so far as the interests of agriculture are concerned,
are entirely neutral.
In its vegetable diet, the bird certainly does not commend itself to
the agriculturist. Its preference for corn is very marked and shows
no variance with the change of season. That it visits the growing
crop for its supplies is evident from the fact that much of the corn
found in the stomachs during the early summer was ‘in the milk.’ In
any locality, therefore, where this grackle is very abundant it must
almost, necessarily be harmful to the corn crop without rendering any
well-defined service in return.
DISTRIBUTION OF STOMACHS.
Distribution of stomachs, by months and States.
BOBOLINK.
é wR ba s
ez ae: x | 3 8
States. 2/5/41]. : 3] E | 8 | & | @ | Total.
ele |e (Bla /s/F/28/)/8)/818/8
3 ee s s 5 Ss i) 2 2
5 is A 4 a 5 5 < wn ° A a
CONNEC. Masccleeeoeel sence ee aurd Memes 25
Dist.of Columbited| 2-5.) neae cet dll eeclad| us: 21
GEOG cecaimommmeliamnclecosenbaven fuecagy 9
TOW co! disco iste sercraidrarcl| Gas adb-cl eaeeooleaee cull eases 2
RSAS wie cetotocnnl mene cabysce ts veel seine 4
Massachusetts al isis tare eae 3 2 Gl eaceentel weeks || ean eal nad sarall ences 9
Michigan .. albguemcnl mated 2 eed me cb veecciel eycisctel, Aisicion Miaavaia| Anau asics 2
Minnesota . " =e 10
HW Ca) £01 eee . ae 9
New Jersey........ eo 10
New York.......-. 62
North Dakota 21
Pennsylvania .. 48
Rhode Island...... 3
South Carolina .... 2
South Dakota ..... 2
ROXAS: eco cron esuianye 3
Virginia ..... 19
West Virginia ..... ; Tt
Wisconsin v7
Ontario, Canada ... 12
TOUR wanwe soy 291
DISTRIBUTION OF STOMACHS, BY MONTHS AND STATES. 3
Distribution of stomachs, by months and States—Continued.
COWBIRD.
States. ze E = % | 8 q : Total.
3 eis s | 3 a 2/3] 2 g.
gis |e|a}2)/s )s)/ 2) Bl SE] sg
5S ion = < = 5 5 4 a ol Z A
ATIZONA: o:-.cjc0cissieies|sieGase|ssencel|oncesecleetace 1 A Niels nieve Pavccaiattel e eecher sill oie tianele mediation Leeatese: 2
*Connecticut:.cessou|seesine|tereer| saree 7 Dil Sista eal seme ers sivas Usleroaeealtesiveg lcese Sue 11
Dist. of Columbia. . 3
Georgia............ 4
Tilinois ........0..- 5
15
133
2
1
MALY VEIN ose is 'ecossis llereicherioses | SsSsosdswies| etsis ded basis sual] Gaidlesaid lsimereiees Ll Geprvsl dyersieicieleisisrelomll atasisilll ca ieisies 1
Massachusetts.....)...---|..----|--.--- 5 (is eee 2: lsostewe| teeen laecernl emis eee 13
ELC I Le a eratssats folnicil spaieea cl] erararstaie!lctviatsiatei| ieteraie'| ramen [ataieietets A: | tancrstexs | enasverete | onintalatalllcrerssaiavel|siviciaiwie 1
Minnesota... 5 al ree De a scssicgs' ebisislese leleseiocs isiaciaae 9
New Jersey... 6 Me \erarsraraie i 22
New York... 6 63 Bu leacmise eecece 104
North Dakota Oils saie a Mereeieel eeteee eersioe 13
Ohidssce eesantes seen basacas| stews oe ob a roca re bata 2) 2 : 6
Pennsylvania ...../......|.----- 6 6 9 15 v2) 6 1 5 tleiecacae wal
Rhode slang e273. lec secd|nenictne)asadeake seealesccaleecincl. Thee se I. jesse eseeeslgecnes: 2
South Dakota .....|.-....|..-.- 2 eee pees Dh |eieereiece DN atescitd reteaeciael imiasaratall seine | teat
MON OSSO Sic orcscrsiters ee detest eseatecatell a eeesstere |e meall eset amieree|eiew'cee lle es Eee! Ail seoitie 1
TEXAS .....0..200- 3} sl 2| 3f.c..) 21 af 3] 4) 54] se] 2] 100
VAIN Aes see 9
West Virginia . - 4 1
WISCONSIN. .casc nen 38
Canada........--.- 3
DOB, caiFi es 3 10 18 83 99 53 57 38 79 70 23 11 544
1
1
eae: 18
Michigan..........]...-2-[-.---- |i ae sree | een idee tues niall ste! Bilbses Solace 3
Minnesota, soseces: laseelecsises Wiese ore 11} 10 0:4), 28's weal ewes [reel watee 58
2
35
al:
3
11
eS 2
Northwest Terri- |
tory, Canada...../....../...--.,-----+ ae bs Ree en ere eee Pee Genre core 3
TOUR csuneseiscl | vreiweinal eianletciellaemiced 9 31 14 16 60 5 B i actsecc| ae cieies 138
T4 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES,
Distribution of stomachs, by months aud States—Continued.
RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD.
> Fa 8 S 5 3
States, e} g a = , % q 2 q . Total.
| 5 5 Fa a] g Es 2 2
Sere | eo) es | ale | Se) eet eS
5 com a <@ a 5 5 4 n ° Zz &
IATA ZONA go ise iassrslensie isle -aisieiel ieimionesie bash oes weretetare Bb sours |eervoristeem pina leeemae ees loniaanal[esteecie 8
California ......... weed WD |orichons IDE crates) wfetsrarniell rarenenan cceeerdsee z
Connecticut... é 3 5 6 | seenec Gy aesinae = 20
Dist. of Columbia-.]...--- BE eoorences Up | eigemtes eerste 2 Ae lasccaiaasle 4 Deere 17
PGT s ciewise ce enies [acicmiera occu emcee 2g precast & $e casrG yl SaciniS yore beara cn tale vate | ictaiceee atnaiones 2
Georgia ..... 1-0... [ence e|-eeeee|-eeeee[oe eens 2) hetareraresall eevee aperate areata a ia eis itll sea yaics 2
TU INOIS se yesseareecers 10
Indiana 3
TOWincemsieeerigea cin 53
RASS siciciccioniceicis 15 4 19 SOU rcsioss a Psisioiantannanisyateral|Nexieranaba eee 70
Maryland ........./..02-|.0..2. ey oe) a) eel a) pel eh lee 95
Massachusetts -.... De Vemerus sown 7 a) l4 BE arziace ese | esrrerete | Ragiecisleamentbcnss 29
Michigan -. ; 1
Minnesota ......-.- 2 2 E 2 57
Missouri ........--. : ; a
Nebraska .....-..-. f 3
NeW Jerseys coneneslwezcee a 8 6 DEY eet | Sairateeaes seertterwisl hesciciateicsieiatate DN cscieserer 17
New York... 2) 9 14 12 8 7 2 4 oT il siete 59
North Dakota ...../...... bet Nee aeae ieee Bil igh! abel Thee ce beer leeeees il
QUI10 es rerstesscrscztnicsisre arc ariorctora rorenies Fy! | sesretenarat chajaserarellikayararrss| eieraitrava armacvciell craiatetnial mneintaiens emvaraners 1
Pennsylvania ..... 28 i 186
Rhode Island...... 1
South Carolina .. z oe : ic Bie a i
South Dakota...._. - : : 7
331
Scacaueini PRESS 2
1
Virginia -. 2%
West Virginia 7
Wisconsin .......-. d p 10
Wyoming.......... 9 ssid 2
Ontario, Canada.../...... mses eee 3 a eee Lee ey eee Dh Nh ratapceatst cestersne 8
Total swoseuws aa | 48} 84} 104 75 | 168) 141| 151] 56] 91} 2 | 82 | 1,083
CALIFORNIA RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD.
California ......... 2 Ne 3 | Bl se taed 13:1) ileezaes 2) 18 | 23] 7 61
RUSTY BLACKBIRD,
11
6
Georgia... 3
Illinois .
TOW ocensesteneicictatersicte eleneonals anton , 5
Kansas ......2..... 1 | eee 5 20 36
Massachusetts .....!. 22... | sero J 2 2 te 8
MINNCSOth sawaccwce aaa aats Ferkd U5) lista ave Bekah tee tced| Dat 1 5
New Jersey........ [ener | Ba aell dace sa lec mAd Gace seater een | crane area ane 2
New Vork:cxmnceus. | eral eceeyeys 1 4 fb hvecwilevealsien imate 2 20
DISTRIBUTION OF STOMACHS, BY MONTHS AND STATES. 75
Distribution of stomachs, by months aud Stutes—Continued.
RUSTY BLACKBIRD—Continued.
Be Bg) i] ¢
Sa ate tate 4/8) 2) 8 | a [rota
PTE] EE |e] Se] sg] ele} e]/ se) 2] 8
a 2 a s 3 f=) 5 a o 2 2
5 & a ol =I 5 5 <q n ° Zz a
North Dakota .<5..02)-cccs|onase eoscce)lasenilndads lease onan lawewos SL ors Retsbel| rsa sed 1
OMI On etree dat eho talc ecicisc neers a letecinamesaioa mcmdlseaceesaliacerne AD cedeardecrl ectease tae i
Pennsylvania .....|......]....--[--..2+ bia Gres] Peete Pee sen eros Pirie eee eee nial ome 6
POR AS icieccepeeinteelocntss GB |e cice slew |e sere | ween’ eae sete lon esanel| researc ictocts 2 1 a
Vaireiniaes oo stesedleneescleccsce Dl esssiSesie lb ds ae iall cles saleca ele pasctell atic el PAeieoutet vere Pi eerie 2.
West Virginia. 2.2 2:)): ccasavcccleecces eesunclt eyceul eseed ecm es [eaeeis ecw Dh ene aebeaseie i:
Wisconsin ..... 2
Nova Scotia 4
Ontario, Canada...|......|...-.. A, Vesscnsla| ater eet | eee beeeeee 1 gl rere Ease 3
Total ........ 1 6 17 49 FB Neo aexrete ia hese are 4 5 25 15 3 182
69
25-
27
6
15.
4
146.
CROW BLACKBIRD.
PORE cs Ga cnteuhausnnnl comnaadecsomsl Be eeculies na a aeaee al amen Some te ie aaah eit Dee awed ¥
“Connecticut.....--.|2.2--|.----- 9 23 12 8 6 leacerselecnuass 5 es cae 59
Dist. of Columbia..|...-..|...--- 1 1 we 15 48 Oo eiecread: 9 DE charsiees 91
2 Call Femara cae SO fscecus | eyexioer 1 10
2 ih toi Perec 9 Bol sete eee eee 33
2 ps Pee Ge) Sechelt cot nda | sleesele cae 4
10 Bs ia Se lt 2 12 10 leensoeclcaes! 39
67 | 217} 570 29) | srersrarsie 6 16 eierciape ra poscinraety 896
Kentucky scscceceslesseeclssveswlacecs [eseose Des Senrnay cecen lessees eeseed Be sciatica ainciecia 5.
OWI aa s)ecstseieissie | sieciars lees pe cere ccarntars« loeisionte Bo: cdr |e cpeieleel| Merci emits s poamedleeeexeeien 3
Maine ......... Del eta fee ce| a ccatstellebetreraisl| eateries Di: esate aces 2
Maryland 28 3] 210 | 159] 152 SI eeeee 7 Mreeeeeey 558.
Massachusetts 10a sito MszeSsel same nc |2eeeselscests| ease etees eee 10-
Michigan.......... 6 Ql ee es Sl pees 8
Minnesota.........|-----.|------/------ g 3 6 2 13
MITT wie wanes Neve polialllemelaecrl sharon KS 1
IN GDrbisk as iicieuterorecsl|craieiana||vemescel jena oe 3 25
New Jemsey...c.00-|acuses 3 1 11 Pl execcnerd Tl secre leis iain peers 27
New Vork:-.c2.ce0:|eeceuelenscey Ol AP | clr ae 1 1] 29 OF) owas aes 92
Seesee (ee Ree nel Ce repeeed (oneremrers (etme 6
4 3 18 eo caecel cecal sceces 29
Pennsylvania ..... bSecien staal 20; 94) 62] 638] 72) 12 6) 45 a Ek eee 375
South Dakota .....|...--.|------|------ Mes | Soe A bate ot eee eee Tlie A leeeees
26-
16
-T
Distribution of stomachs, by months and States—Continued.
CROW BLACKBIRD—Continued.
6 FOOD OF BOBOLINK, BLACKBIRDS, AND GRACKLES.
i Hu :
¥. ° 5 i
a sy : ‘ a us a 3
States. q g a = , : a ag |g q _ | Total.
2 5 zE - a g 4 = cS i y
a | 4 ee) |) ee cae GS es Ble] 6 | 8
Sie Alsat al a T]aA]alalol}]ala
West Virginia ..... or doxy wteses Seeeelg|seeees|beecee lee cexe Cl Beserra ecscers eel as gn 3
Wisconsin .......
Ontario, Canada... 6
Total ..3:.55.53% 7 8 53 | 289 | 348] 887] 346] 197 81} 11 il 8] 2,346
BlOrid ass sence wore 5
Georgia. 8
ENGR <2 ianicisawsensecee 103
Total: .ccsjso20 24 20 3 3 8 12 14 4 9 5 5 9 116
INDEX.
Agelaius gubernator californicus, 44,
Agelaius pheniceus, 33.
Boat-tailed grackle, 70-72.
food, animal, 71.
vegetable, 71.
stomachs collected, 76.
Bobolink, 12-22.
destruction of rice by, 13-18.
food, animal, 19-20, 22.
vegetable, 20-21, 22.
regarded as game, 8.
stomachs collected, 72.
Brewer’s blackbird, 50-52.
food, animal, 50-51, 52.
vegetable, 51, 52.
stomachs collected, 75.
Bronzed grackle, 53.
California red-winged blackbird, 44-45.
food, animal, 45.
vegetable, 45.
stomachs collected, 74.
Cowbird, 22-30.
food, animal, 24-26, 29.
vegetable, 26-29,
parasitism of, 23-24, 30.
stomachs collected, 73.
Crow blackbird, 53-70.
food, animal, 60-63, 69.
of nestlings, 67-68.
vegetable, 64-66, 69.
grain destruction by, 56-57.
nest robbing by, 57-58.
stomachs collected, 75-76.
Destruction of grain by crow blackbird, 56-57.
of grain by red-winged blackbird, 41-43,
of rice by bobolink, 13-18,
Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 12.
Florida grackle, 53.
Food, animal, boat-tailed grackle, 71.
bobolink, 19-20, 22.
Brewer's blackbird, 50-51.
California red-winged blackbird, 45.
cowbird, 24-26.
crow blackbird, 60-63.
nestling crow blackbirds, 67-68.
red-winged blackbird, 3940.
rusty blackbird, 46-47.
yellow-headed blackbird, 31.
Food, vegetable, boat-tailed grackle, 71.
bobolink, 20-21.
Brewer s blackbird, 51.
California red-winged blackbird, 45.
cowbird, 26-29.
crow blackbird, 64-66.
red-winged blackbird, 40-43.
rusty blackbird, 47-48.
yellow-headed blackbird, 31-32.
Game, bobolink regarded as, 8.
red-winged blackbird regarded as, 8.
Grain destruction, by crow blackbird, 56-57.
by red-winged blackbird, 41-43.
Molothrus ater, 22.
Nestlings of crow blackbird, food of, 67-68.
Nest robbing by crow blackbird, 57-58.
Parasitism of cowbird, 23-2:, 30.
Protection, exemption of blackbirds from, 8.
Purple grackle, 53.
Quiscalus major, 70.
Quiscalus quiscula, 53.
Quiscalus quiscula xneus, 58.
Quiscalus quiscula aglxus, 53.
Red-shouldered blackbird, 33.
Red-winged blackbird, 33-44.
food, animal, 3940, 44.
vegetable, 40-43, 44.
grain destruction by, 4143.
regarded as game, 8.
stomachs collected, 74.
Reedbird, 18.
Ricebird, 13. 2
Rice destruction by bobolink, 13-18.
Rusty blackbird, 45-49.
food, animal, 4647, 49.
vegetable, 47-48, 49.
stomachs collected, 74-75.
Rusty grackle, 45.
Scolecophagus carolinus, 45.
Scolecophagus cyanocephalus, 50.
Starling, American, 33.
Stomachs collected, tables of, 72-76.
Swamp blackbird, 33.
Xanthocephalus canthocephalus, 30.
Yellow-headed blackbird, 30-33.
food, animal, 31, 33.
vegetable, 31-32, 33.
stomachs collected, 73.
q7
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD
/BY
Fr. E. L. BEAL, B. S.
Assistant Biologist, Biological Survey
[REPRINT FROM YEARBOOK OF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR 1900. }
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD
BY
F. E. L. BEAL, B.S.
Assistant Biologist, Biological Survey
[Reprint From YEARBOOK oF DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FoR 1900.]
CONTENTS.
Page.
MTV EROMUCHIO ME = Sane aie heaters cee oe aea ce es Stare aya deed yaar sine Naas 291
Some birds important to the fruit grower ........-.------------------------ 291
WOO PECK ETS: oso aeepcccvcccic cvs neeiee asectct ne het va gens ereeateawncnanaayslacane mre yemasaratesndasmnmioreaionte 291
ST GH COS sees cesccceccecvescreuasmrartaes Speier alla eli araranceeennne ee Saeere acearets 295
Nuthatchés:and créée per eicssswes crete wee nsiwentecngnatcaensareoeseewen se: 296
CUCKOOS scienesetesaisidelpexteidaaeises Spasms Maoneemenee anaes weeeue 297
Baltimore oriolésss.ucsccuseneceus snecase seaeeseanenseeeeerees eather 298
Woarblersic. 22 sie. meenwine mee eoe he eee meee el ee ene 298
WARE OS acs. 'e tw ais east ho pve ee ea i ko a el eg A i ee 298
Koodvotthe youne birds 32.2 cussion ce ee cdcc oackeewace seceaceuenecee 298
BUPA SSOL DUC: 5 <ca te cccans ca Goce yaiesbnsnbaeandns cht sales gs Rca udeey er Svinalialane A iMcle escaasbioes 299
POTTS 5 2 aah recent tat ye TS ch i eh heheh ideas git ed paps lind euht ELy Reseaigag aN 301
Birds: arwitil 16: OF CHAvGS socsca.n:aro.csacsvevacs case 2a: ernie ace cia aryl aparavaiacaveinioieciaenvenvemiatenie 302
Purple finch and house finch. ..........-.......--002- 222022 e eee enone 302
TROD Hae etee alte aeeadic k wen Seeena gaan ee enrecseents 303
Catbind i ncsackiveutianeestan cme Bea sce cis oe sane ceesee eee ene 303
Cedar waxwint} « <2susecaialean hoe Gers sperma emule meee see 304
Cause-of:harm: by birdsis.c.nesuenwasies cece vcs Yond penweceemuneeosklnnoeoes 304
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. 34: Tongues of woodpeckers ........ 2.2.2.2. 0 eee ee cece cceeeeceeeeeeces 292
35. Special development of tongues of woodpeckers .........-----++--+- 293
36. Hairy woodpecker (Dryobates rillosus) ........-.00--00e-eeeeeeeeeeee 294
37. Flicker (Colaptes auratus) ....... 0200000002 c vee e eee ce eee nee e eee 294
38. Yellow-bellied woodpecker (Sphyrapicus varius).........---+++++++ 294
II
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD.
By F. E. L. Beat, B.S.,
Assistant Biologist, Biological Survey.
INTRODUCTION.
That birds sometimes inflict injuries upon orchard trees and their
products is a fact with which every fruit grower is familiar; but it
is not so well known that they are frequently of great service in
destroying enemies of the orchard, and yet the aid they render in this
subtler way far more than offsets the harm that is so apparent.
The enemies with which the fruit grower has to contend, aside from
the elements and the birds themselves, may be divided into three cat-
egories: Vegetable parasites, such as fungi and bacteria; certain mam-
mals, such as rabbits and mice; and insects of various kinds. Against
vegetable foes birds afford little, if any, protection. Their efficiency
is shown in the destruction of noxious mammals and insects. The
value of their work in dollars and cents is difficult of determination,
but careful study has brought out much of practical importance in
ascertaining approximately to what degree each species is harmful or
helpful in its relation to the orchard.
SOME BIRDS IMPORTANT TO THE FRUIT GROWER.
WOODPECKERS.
Among birds which most directly affect the interests of the fruit
grower may be mentioned woodpeckers, of which about 45 species and
subspecies are found within the limits of the United States, all of
decided economic importance. Their subsistence is obtained for the
most part upon trees, a mode of life for which they are specially
adapted. The character of the feet and tail enables them to cling
easily to upright trunks, and the structure of the bill and tongue gives
them the power to cut into solid wood and withdraw the insects lodged
inside. The toes are in pairs, one pair projecting forward and the
other backward, and are furnished with very strong, sharp claws, an
arrangement which insures a firm hold upon the bark. The tail is
composed of very stiff feathers pointed at the end, that can be pressed
against the tree trunk, and thus made to support and steady the bird.
The beak is rather long, but stout, and furnished with a chisel-shaped
point, which is hardened and sharpened so as to render it a most
effective wood-cutting instrument. The tongue, the most peculiar
portion of the anatomy of these birds, is extended backward by two
291
2992 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
slender, flexible filaments of the hyoid bone, each incased in a muscular
sheath (fig. 34, a). These filaments, instead of ending at the back of
the mouth, curve up over the back of the skull, across the top of the
head, and down on the forehead, and in some species enter the opening
of the right nostril, and extend forward to the end of the beak (fig. 35).
In the last case the tongue is practically twice the length of the head.
By means of its surrounding muscular sheath, the tongue can be pro-
truded from the bird’s mouth a considerable portion of its length, and
can thus be inserted into the burrows of wood-boring larve. In order
to secure grubs or other insects, it is usually furnished with a sharp
point and is barbed on the sides (fig. 34, 3).
It is evident that a bird possessing such an
apparatus must be capable of doing work
which less advantageously endowed species
can not accomplish. Hence, while most
birds content themselves with eating such
insects as they find upon the surface, wood-
peckers seek those larve or grubs which are
beneath the bark, or even in the very heart
of the tree. To render more effective the
mechanism here described, these birds are
gifted with a remarkably acute sense of
hearing by which to locate their prey within
the wood. That they do so with great accu-
racy, is disclosed by examination of their
work, which shows that they cut small holes
directly to the burrows of the grubs.
Downy woopPrEcKER.—Of the various
species of woodpeckers in the Eastern
FIG. 34.—Tongues of woodpeckers; States, the two most important are the so-
a, hyoid of flicker (¢Hlaptes aura- Called downy and hairy woodpeckers. These
See ae sien birds are especially given to foraging in
orchards, more particularly in winter; for,
unlike most species,they do not migrate, but remain on their range the
year round,
A study of the contents of the stomachs of many specimens of the
downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens) shows that nearly one-fourth
of the yearly food consists of ants. A celebrated French writer upon
popular natural history has spoken of the ant as ‘the little black
milkmaid, who pastures her green cows in the meadow of a rose leaf.”
This is a graphic, if somewhat fanciful, picture of the relations of ants
and plant lice (Aphid); but unfortunately the black milkmaid does
not limit her pastures to the rose-leaf meadows. There are compara-
tively few plants which do not suffer to some extent by the ravages
of plaat lice, and fruit trees and ornamental shrubs seem to be more
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 293
especially subject to their attacks. Ants protect these plant lice from
harm, and, when the plant on which they are feeding is exhausted,
carry them to fresh pastures, and in some cases actually build shelters
over them. Besides destroying the ants, the downy woodpecker eats
many of the plant lice.
Again, when the woodpecker has, by its keen sense of hearing,
located the larva of a wood-boring beetle in a tree, and dislodged it
with the aid of the sharp-edged chisel and probe, there is much likeli-
hood that the next
time it visits the tree
it will find a colony
of ants snugly estab-
lished in the burrow
of the defunct grub,
whose somewhat lim-
ited quarters they are
extending in every
direction. It now
brings to bear upon
the ants the same ap-
paratus it used in the
case of the grub, and
they are soon drawn: Fic. 35.—Special development of tongues of woodpeckers: a, skull of
out and devoured. flicker (Colaptes aurutus), showing root of tongue extending to tip
F thes t of bill (after Lindahl); b, head of hairy woodpecker (Dryobates
rom ese wo villosus), showing root of tongue curving around eye (after Audu-
sources are obtained bon).
the ants that are found in the food of this bird, and that constitute 23
per cent of that food. In both cases the insects are harmful, and the
woodpecker stops the injury and benefits the tree.
Of the food of the downy woodpecker, 13 per cent consists of wood-
boring coleopterous larvx, insects that do an immense amount of dam-
age to fruit and forest trees, and are, as stated, protected from the
attacks of ordinary birds by their habit of burrowing in trees. Besides
the grubs taken from within the wood, the woodpecker eats many of
the parent insects from whose eggs these grubs are hatched. It also
destroys numerous other species that live upon the foliage and bark.
Caterpillars, both those that bore into the tree and those that live upon
the leaves, constitute 16 per cent of its food, and bugs that live on
berries and give to them such a disagreeable taste form a considerable
portion of its diet. Bark lice or scale insects (Coccide), pests of the
worst description, are also eaten by this bird, and to an extent that is
surprising when their minute size is considered.
Harry wooprPecKER.—The hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus, fig.
36) subsists on food that is similar in general to that of the downy;
and although it does not eat quite so many ants, it destroys more
2994 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
beetle larvee and more caterpillars, and thus renders quite as good
service in the orchard. In winter, birds of both these species are more
pressed for food than in summer, and may
be seen busily searching the crevices in the.
bark, where they find hibernating insects
and insects’ eggs. By devouring these
they destroy many enemies that would
f : have attacked the trees at the approach of
aD yk” AY warm weather.
Fuickrer.—tThe flicker ( Colaptes auratus,
fig. 37), another member of the woodpecker
family, is well known to most orchardists
: a and farmers. It is larger than either the
Fie, saul aaa (Dry downy or the hairy woodpecker, and differs
; somewhat from them in its food habits. It
eats fewer beetles and caterpillars, but devours an enormous number
of ants. Two stomachs were examined, each of which contained more
than 3,000 ants, and ina third were 5,000,
of avery minute species. Not all of these
ants, however, are obtained from trees;
many are species that burrow in the earth,
for the flicker is more terrestrial than
most of the other woodpeckers, and takes
much of its food from the ground.
YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER. —On
the other hand, some harm to fruit trees
is to be charged against this family, though
there is much popular misapprehension in
this regard. The smaller species have been called sapsuckers, from
the supposition that they puncture holes in the bark of trees in order
to get the sap and soft inner bark. The charge
is well grounded, but only one species, so far
as known, causes any appreciable harm through
the practice. This is the yellow-bellied wood-
pecker (Sphyrupfcus varius, fig. 38), whose
summer range is confined to Canada, the
northern portions of the United States, and
the Allegheny Mountains, and whose winter
residence is in the Southern States. This bird
ix injurious to certain trees, at times removing
the outer bark over a considerable area, and
at others pecking numerous holes very close
together, in cach case practically girdling the
tree. Ax the sup collects in the pits thus formed, the bird drinks it, and
also catches the insects that are attracted to the pits by the sweetness
. R
Fig. 37.—Flicker (Colaptes auratus).
“
Fig, 38.—Yellow-bellied wood-
pecker (Sphyrapicus varius).
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 295
of their contents. The trees attacked, mostly birches, mountain
ashes, maples, and apple trees, often die the first or second year after
the girdling is done. Fruit trees, however, are not very frequently
attacked by this bird, and the species is not numerous enough to cause
any perceptible harm to the forest. Examination of the stomachs of
yellow-bellied woodpeckers shows that alburnum, or the soft tissue
lying between the inner layer of bark and the hard wood of the tree,
constitutes quite an important item of the diet, 23 per cent of the
food of the year. Other woodpeckers also eat sparingly of the same
substance, but the little they take is of no practical importance.
RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER.—The red-bellied woodpecker (Jelan-
erpes carolinus), which is not common in the East north of Pennsyl-
vania, has fallen into disrepute among the orange growers of Florida
by its attacks on oranges. It does considerable damage by pecking
holes in the ripe fruit, and sometimes causes serious loss. It is to be
hoped that experience will show some way to prevent these ravages
without destroying the bird, for its harmfulness is confined to the
orange groves of Florida, and it is of much value elsewhere.
OTHER WOODPECKERS.—The other woodpeckers, both eastern and
western, are all more or less useful to fruit raisers. In the West and
South, besides several subspecies of the hairy and downy woodpeckers,
are other members of the same genus (Dryobates), which have food
habits, as shown by stomach examination, that closely approximate
those of the hairy and downy. ‘These include the red-cockaded (D.
borealis), Texan (D. scalaris bairdi), St. Lucas (D. scalaris lwecasanus),
Nuttall’s (D. nuttallz), and Arizona (D. arizone). Several woodpeck-
ers belonging to the genus Picozdes, that inhabit the northern part of
the country and beyond, are equally useful. The genus J/clanerpes,
with its half dozen species, covers practically the whole United States,
and, like the genus Dryobates, is a group of useful insectivorous birds,
with the possible exception noted above. In the West three species
of flickers are found whose food is practically the same as that of the
eastern species.
TITMICE,
BLAcCK-CAPPED CHICKADEE.—The well-known titmice, or chickadees,
though small in size and unobtrusive in habits, do much good in both
orchard and forest. So far as known, the food habits of all are bene-
ficial. The winter food of the familiar black-capped chickadee (Parus
atricapillus), which has been investigated by Prof. Clarence M. Weed,"
of New Hampshire, and by the Biological Survey, consists of noxious
insects, and more especially of insects’ egzs. The eggs of plant lice
(Aphide) were found in a large proportion of the stomachs examined,
and constituted an important percentage of the food. Besides these,
1Bulletin 54, N. H. College Agr. Exp. Sta., June, 1898.
296 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the eggs of such pests as the common tent caterpillar (Clisiocampa
americana), the forest tent caterpillar (C. d/sstria), and the fall canker-
worm (Anisopteryx pometariu) are eaten. In winter chickadees spend
most of the daylight hours in searching trunks and branches of trees,
inspecting every crevice in the bark and examining every bud for the
insects’ eggs and hibernating insects, which constitute so large a part
of their food.
Mr. E. H. Forbush, ornithologist to the Massachusetts State board
of agriculture, has shown how these birds may be attracted to the
orchard in winter by hanging up pieces of suet, or bones with a little
meat still attached to them.* In this way they are induced to leave
the woods and live in the orchard during the winter, and finally to build
their nests and rear their young there.
CALIFORNIA BUSH-TIT.—Other species of titmice are quite as useful
as the black-cap. Examination of the stomachs of a number of Cali-
fornia bush-tits (Psaltriparus minimus) revealed the presence in con-
siderable number of the black scale (Lecantum ole), which infests the
olive. This insect has been a serious pest to the olive trees on the
Pacific coast, and any bird that will destroy it should certainly be
encouraged by Western fruit growers. The usefulness of titmice de-
pends largely upon the small size of the birds. In dealing with pests
of any kind, the more minute they are the less the probability that man
can by his own unaided efforts succeed in exterminating them. Plant
lice and bark lice are, on this account, difficult of destruction by human
agency, and are too small to attract the attention of many of our
ordinary birds; but to the chickadees they must appear of considerable
size, and so are easily found and eaten. The eggs of insects, especially
those sof such small species as plant lice, are often so minute as to
escape the closest search by man; but the more microscopic eyes of
these small birds detect them even in crevices of buds or bark.
NUTHATCHES AND CREEPER.
Frequent associates of the chickadees, and doing practically the
same work, are the nuthatches and the brown creeper. The nuthatches
are of about the same size as the chickadees, but are more agile tree
climbers, in this respect excelling all othr North American birds.
While woodpeckers and titmice usu: ally run up the trunks, nuthatches
run up or down, or along the underside of a horizontal branch, with
equal facility, aud do not depend upon the tail for support. The
brown creeper, like the chickadec, is constantly engaged during the
day in searching for insects’ eggs and small insects in the crevices of
the bark. It is an active, nervous little creature, which flits rapidly
from one tree to another, generally alighting upon the trunk near the
? Mags. Crop Reports, p. 349, 1895.
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD.
base, then running spirally upward, and, after a hurried inspection,
winging its way to the next tree. These three birds perform a service
which it is difficult for man to do for himself, and they should be
protected and encouraged.
CUCKOOS.
Probably no group of insects contains a greater number of orchard
pests than the order Lepidoptera, which comprises butterfliesand moths,
with their larve, or caterpillars. Tent caterpillars, cankerworms,
fall webworms, tussock moths, codling moths, and a host of others are
among the worst enemies of the fruit grower. It is, therefore, fortu-
nate that there are in the United States two birds that subsist, to a great
extent, upon caterpillars, apparently preferring them to any other food.
These are the cuckoos, the yellow-billed (Coccyzus americanus) and the
black-billed (C. erythrophthalmus). For years it has been a matter of
common observation that these birds feed largely on caterpillars, but,
until a number of stomachs had been examined, it was not known how
great a proportion of their food is made up of these harmful insects.
The examinations indicated that caterpillars of various species, includ-
ing some of the most destructive, constitute more than 48 per cent of
their food. One stomach contained at least 250 tent caterpillars,
probably a whole colony, in the young stage. In another 217 heads
of the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) were counted, and this prob-
ably fell far short of the real number, as these larvee are very small,
and in many instances nothing but jaws remained undigested. In the
stomachs of 155 cuckoos taken in various parts of the country were
found 2,771 caterpillars of various species, or an average of 18 to each
stomach. When we consider that a caterpillar is so soft and easily
digested that soon after being swallowed it has entirely passed from
the stomach, it is evident that in one day far more than this number
(18) must have been eaten by the average bird. Many caterpillars are
protected from the attacks of birds and parasitic insects by a covering
of hair, and hairy caterpillars are only rarely eaten by most birds.
Cuckoos, however, seem to prefer them to the smooth kind, and
apparently eat them whenever they can be found. Caterpillar hairs
are often stiff, bristly, and sharp at the end, like minute thorns, and it
frequently happens that when a cuckoo’s stomach is opened and
emptied it is found to be completely furred on the inside by hairs
which have pierced the inner lining and become fast. Cuckoos eat
many noxious insects besides caterpillars, such as beetles, bugs, and
grasshoppers. Unfortunately, they are naturally rather shy birds,
preferring the edges of woodland and groves to the more open cul-
tivated grounds and orchards. If, however, they are unmolested, they
soon gain confidence, and in many cases frequent shade trees about
houses and lawns, or even in the very heart of the city.
A1900——20
298 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
The Baltimore oriole or golden robin (Jeterus galbula) also feeds
largely on caterpillars, which amount to 34 per cent of its summer
food. When nesting, the oriole may be seen searching among the
outer twigs of trees, examining every leaf in quest of its favorite food.
In addition to caterpillars, it destroys many noxious beetles and plant
and bark lice. Butits reputation is not unblemished. Some complaint
has been made against it by fruit growers, and John Burroughs accuses
it of destroying grapes. However, its peculations of this character
are probably not very great, for in an examination of more than 100
stomachs very little fruit was found, and that chiefly of wild varieties,
while there was an entire absence of any remains indicating grapes.
WARBLERS.
The family of warblers is of wide distribution and comprises species
that are usually small and brilliantly colored. These differ greatly
among themselves in habits, some remaining in the deepest shades of
the forest, while others frequent groves, orchards, shrubbery, and
gardens. Some seek their food by running over the bark of trees
like woodpeckers or chickadees; others are terrestrial; but the great
majority live on the insects which they find upon the leaves of trees.
While definite data are wanting as to the food of these birds, field
observation indicates that it consists largely of small caterpillars and
other insects that feed on the leaves of fruitand forest trees. Although
warblers are, individually, small, their numbers are great, and the
quantity of insects they destroy in the aggregate must be large.
A single observation will illustrate the character of their work. In the
month of May, 1900, when the apple trees had just expanded rosettes
of small leaves and flower buds, a multitude of warblers of several
species were seen going through an orchard examining these rosettes,
and apparently pecking something from each. An investigation of
the trees not yet reached by the warblers showed that each rosette
contained from one to a dozen large plant lice, while a similar investi-
gation of the trees explored by the birds revealed few of these insects.
VIREOS,
The vireos are similar to the warblers in habits. Several species
commonly nest in the orchards and about the buildings, obtain their
food from foliage, and so destroy many insects harmful to fruit trees.
FOOD OF THE YOUNG BIRDS.
All these species do good service to the orchard when rearing their
young. Our small birds, even those that, when adult, feed on fruit or
seeds, rev their young on insects. Nestlings can not digest hard sub-
stances, such as beetles or hard seeds, so their parents select for them
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 299
soft-bodied insects like caterpillars and other larve, young grasshop-
pers, and spiders. Stomach examination shows that they are fed on
caterpillars or spiders almost exclusively during the first week of their
existence, after which the diet is gradually changed and becomes more
varied.
BIRDS OF PREY.
When fruit trees are young, and more especially when they are in
the nursery rows, they are subject in winter to attacks from various
species of mice and rabbits, which gnaw the bark from the trunks,
completely girdling the trees, and thus ruining them. As a case in
point, may be mentioned a single small nursery a few acres in extent in
Jowa, in which more than 3,00 trees had been girdled by rabbits ina
single winter—one of several instances of equal damage that occurred
in the same town. Ina nursery of less than 5 acres, situated in Mary-
land, only a few miles from Washington, 2,000 out of about 4,000
apple trees were girdled and ruined by rabbits within two months.
It is very significant that the nursery was near farm buildings where
the wild enemies of the rabbits did not dare to come, while a newly set
orchard at a distant part of the farm, and close by woods and thickets,
was hardly touched.
Field mice and other small rodents are represented in the United
States by numerous species, all of which may do mischief to young
treés in winter, and most of which are doing some mischief at all sea-
sons. Rabbits, asa rule, are not so numerous, but their larger size
and fondness for young fruit trees makes their destructiveness fully
as great as that of the smaller rodents, and, in fact, much greater in
some sections where they are particularly abundant. But there is a
group of birds which seems to be especially adapted to prey on these
harmful rodents and hold their numbers within reasonable bounds;
although it often happens that through the shortsightedness of man
_. this wise arrangement is disturbed.
This group comprises the hawks and owls, of which about 73
important species and subspecies are found in the United States. Dr.
A. K. Fisher has investigated’ the diet of these birds, and has shown
that the great bulk of their food consists of injurious rodents. After
an examination of some 2,700 stomachs, only 6 of the 73 species and
subspecies are classed as in the main harmful; the testimony of stom-
ach examination is overwhelmingly in favor of the majority of the
species. Mice, rats, rabbits, gophers, and ground squirrels constitute
the chief food of most of the larger species, while many harmful
insects are destroyed by the smaller ones. These birds at times feed
on smaller insectivorous birds and poultry, but mice and other rodents
are by far the commonest food of most species.
1 Bulletin 3, Div. Ornith. and Mamm., Dept. Agr., 1893.
800 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Hawks and owls hold the same relation to rabbits and mice that the
smaller birds hold to the insect enemies of the orchard. For years
they have been looked upon as harmful, but investigation has dissipated
_much of this error. While, as is the case with most birds, nearly all
of them do some harm, the great majority are preeminently useful.
Mice, rabbits, and other rodents are a constant menace to the interests
of the fruit grower, and sometimes when through some combination of
circumstances their numbers become superabundant, as has frequently
happened in the case of field mice in Europe, their ravages are enor-
mous. Indiscriminate slaughter of hawks and owls has often been
followed hy great ravages by voles and other mice. This should be
sufficient to demonstrate the great utility of these birds as a check upon
the undue increase of such pests.
GREAT HORNED OWL.—The great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), a
bird well known in most parts of the country—though not often seen,
owing to its retiring habits—is probably one of the most potent factors
in holding in check that troublesome pest of the orchard and nursery,
the common cottontail rabbit. Several years ago in a locality in
eastern Massachusetts, through some unknown cause, rabbits became
wonderfully abundant, and the following winter woodchoppers and
others who visited the woods were surprised to see many great horned
owls where in former years not more than two or three were annually
observed. The presence of these birds so soon after the increase of
the rabbits shows how quickly they avail themselves of an unusual sup-
ply of food, and thus restore the disturbed equilibrium. Unfortunately,
it happened that at this time stuffed owls were fashionable as parlor
ornaments, and taxidermists were therefore willing to pay a good
price for them; so when it became known that the woods were full of
owls, the natives did their best to reduce the number, and so perpetu-
ated the rabbit scourge.
In a number of the Eastern States the rabbit is protected by law,
and can be killed only during a small part of the year; but the animal
is us much of a nuisance as are the various species of field mice, and
the accident of its larger size only renders it capable of more mischief.
To offer bounties for the destruction of hawks and owls and simulta-
neously protect rabbits is an anomaly of legislation which will probably
puzzle and amuse future and wiser generations. The food value of the
rabbit is insignificant compared with its capacity for mischief when it
becomes overabundant. In the West the larger species, or jack rabbits,
have many times become excessive in numbers, and “rabbit drives,” in
which the animals are surrounded and driven into a small inclosure,
where they are killed, have grown to be of frequent occurrence. In
Australia the European rabbit some years ago became so abundant
as to threaten the very existence of the sheep industry over a wide
expinse of territory. The common cottontail rabbit is already much
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 301
too numerous for the best economic results in many States of the
Mississippi Valley, and is likely to become so in the East if the
protection of the law is not removed.
MarsH HAWK.—An idea of the good work done by hawks and owls
in the destruction of smaller mammals may be obtained by watching a
marsh hawk (Circus hudsonius) foraging for its dinner. This hawk
preys extensively on the mice and other small mammals that live on
the ground near fences and hedgerows. It may be seen skimming
along close to the surface, following a fence up one side and down
the other, stopping now and then to circle around a particularly prom-
ising spot, and examining every rubbish heap or stone pile, till a
chance movement in the grass catches its eye, when, in an instant, it
throws up its wings, suddenly checking its flight in mid-air, and
drops with outstretched talons upon its unfortunate prey. Mouse
after mouse will be taken in this way, each of which is capable of
doing much mischief to trees or grain.
The extent of the benefit of this work and full corroboration of its
character is shown by stomach examination. Thus, in the stomachs of
45 rough-legged hawks (Archibuteo lagopus sancti-johannis), taken in
several different States, were found 128 harmful rodents, 1 weasel, 1
shrew, 1 lizard, and 70 insects. The rodents, besides 19 which could
not be determined specifically from the remains, consisted of 1 gopher,
2 rabbits, 4 house mice, 4 white-footed mice, and 98 meadow mice.
No traces of birds or poultry were found in any one of the 45 stomachs.
Barn owt.—When hawks or owls devour their prey they usually
bolt it whole or in large fragments, with the bones, hair, and many
of the unremoved feathers. By the action of the stomach the indiges-
tible portions, such as bones and hair, are soon separated from the
flesh and rolled up in a neat pellet, which is then disgorged. In the
vicinity of their nests many such pellets are to be found; and when these
are dissected the bones, and still more the teeth, show what animals
the bird has been eating. Ina tower of the Smithsonian Institution
in Washington a pair of barn owls (Strix pratincola) have had their
nest for several years. Dr. Fisher visited this eyrie on several occa-
sions, and collected 675 pellets, of which he made a careful study,
with the result that he identified the remains of 1,787 small mammals,
mostly rodents, 36 birds, and 2 frogs. Of the mammals, there were
1,119 common meadow mice, one of the worst enemies to young fruit
trees as well as to farm crops in general.
SHRIKES.
ButcHER BIRD.—Besides hawks and owls, certain other native birds
demand passing notice on account of the services they render by destroy-
ing mice. These are the shrikes, birds with many peculiar character-
istics, whose food habits have been investigated by Dr. Sylvester D.
802 YEARBOOK OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Judd.!| One species, commonly known as the butcher bird (Lanius
doreals), nests far to the north, but winters in the United States.
It is a frequenter of orchards and open lands, where it constantly
watches for its prey—mice, an occasional small bird, and what few
insects it can obtain in winter. It is an inveterate enemy of the
English sparrow, which it finds in parks and suburbs of cities and
towns. A peculiar habit largely increases its usefulness. Its instinct
for hunting is so keen that it can not refrain from taking its game
whenever and wherever it can find it, and as the bird frequently is not
hungry at the time of capture, it spits the prey on a convenient thorn,
sharp twig, or barb of a wire fence. It was formerly supposed that
the provisions thus saved were for future use; but although some may
be subsequently eaten, most of them are left to dry up or decay.
LoGGERHEAD SHRIKE.—The loggerhead shrike (Landus ludovicianus)
is more southern in distribution. Its habits are similar to those of the
butcher bird, but as it is with us during the summer, it captures more
insects and fewer birds and mice. As it rears its young here, however,
and so has occasion to use more food, it is probably fully as beneficial
as the other species. Shrikes kill small birds, and to that extent do
harm, but they seem to prefer mice when these can be obtained.
BIRDS HARMFUL TO ORCHARDS.
The other side of the subject under consideration remains to be
shown. The injurious habits of a few birds have already been men-
tioned. In the case of the shrikes, the destruction of small birds is
likely to be detrimental, as small birds are generally valuable aids to
the cultivator; but the injury done in this indirect way is more than
counterbalanced by the destruction of mice and insects, which form
the great bulk of the shrike’s food. Sometimes the damage is more
direct. A few birds feed in winter and spring on buds of trees, both
in forest and orchard. Birds of this habit will be briefly considered.
PURPLE FINCH AND HOUSE FINCH.
The so-called purple finch (Carpodacus purpureus) breeds in the
northern tier of States and to the northward, west to the Dakotas, and
south in the Allegheny Mountains as far as North Carolina, and win-
ters from the southern part of its breeding range south to the Gulf
States. When migrating in spring it subsists somewhat on buds of
fruit and other trees, and tater occasionally destroys the blossoms.
The actual damage done by the Eastern purple finch seems trifling, but
in the case of its Western relative, the house finch, or linnet (C. mev?-
canus frontalis), the matter is much more serious. This closely related
bird does much harm, especially in California, by destroying the flower
buds of peach, apricot, almond, and other trees. In many cases serious
1 Bulletin 9, Biol. Surv., Dept. Agr., 1898.
HOW BIRDS AFFECT THE ORCHARD. 303
injury has been done in this way, and much expense entailed, as the
birds are wonderfully abundant in that section of the country.
ROBIN.
The robin (Alerula migratoria) has often brought itself into unenvi-
able notoriety by its depredations upon small fruits. Many complaints
have been received from growers of fruit, especially those who raise
but a small amount. Sometimes people who grow a few choice cher-
ries do not get even a sample of the fruit, and those who raise
fine strawberries for family use sometimes secure only afew boxes,
while the robins take most of the crop. On the other hand, thousands
of fruit raisers in various parts of the country are never troubled by
robins, although these birds may be just as abundant in their vicinity
as elsewhere. The probable explanation of this is not far to seek.
An examination of the stomachs of 500 robins, collected in various
parts of the country, shows that cultivated fruit forms but a moderate
percentage (less than 8 per cent) of their diet; and that practically all
of this is eaten in June and July; while wild fruits, of which 42 vari-
eties have been identified, constitute more than 43 per cent of the
year’s food. Investigation shows that complaints have come chiefly
from two principal sources, the suburbs of large towns in the East and
the prairie region of the West. Such localities lack those wild fruits
which robins evidently prefer. Near cities such fruits have been
destroyed, and in the prairie region they rarely grow. As soon as the
prairies were settled many small fruits were planted, thus affording a
supply of food to the birds, while the larger fruit trees furnished sites
for their nests. As none or but few of the wild fruits were accessible,
it follows naturally that the birds resorted to the available supply, that
is, to the cultivated varieties. Much the same condition has been created
about large cities by the substitution of cultivated for wild fruit.
CATBIRD.
In parts of the Mississippi Valley the catbird (Galeoscoptes carola-
nensis) also has become one of the pests of the small-fruit orchard.
East of the Appalachian range there are so many varieties of wild
fruits in forests and swamps that, as a rule, the bird confines itself to
these localities and does not disturb orchard products. In the prairie
region, however, it is different. Before that part of the country was
settled the bird was confined to the narrow belts of woods and shrubs
along streams, where it found agreeable nesting sites and suitable
food. When civilization transformed the prairies into farms, gardens,
orchards, and vineyards, a new field was opened to the catbird as well
as toother species. The fruit trees and vines not only furnished secure
nesting places, but also afforded a new and abundant source of food.
It is probable that this resulted in a decided increase in the numbers
of the birds, which, depending largely on domestic fruit for their food,
804 YEARBOOK UF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
soon became a nuisance. These conclusions, as has been suggested in
several recent considerations of this subject, point to the planting of
wild fruit about gardens and lawns as a protection to the cultivated
varieties. Many of the wild fruit shrubs are ornamental, either in
flower, as the shadbush (Aselanchier), or in fruit, as the mountain ash
(Sorbus).
CEDAR WAXWING.
The cherry bird or cedar waxwing (Ampelis cedroruwm) occurs over
the greater part of the United States and is known everywhere by its
fondness for cherries and other smal] fruits. Like the robin and cat-
bird, however, it eats far more wild than cultivated fruit. Complaints
against it have been chiefly on account of cherry eating, but its depre-
dations are mostly confined to the early ripening varieties of cherries.
By the time the later kinds ripen other fruits have also become abun-
dant, and the bird’s attention is probably diverted.
Besides eating fruit, the robin, catbird, and waxwing destroy many
harmful insects, and, where not too numerous, probably do much more
good than harm. All three species are very abundant in New England,
but are seldom molested. The cherry bird is the only one of which
serious complaint is made, and that simply on the score of stealing
early cherries, while the robin is regarded almost as sacred.
CAUSE OF HARM BY BIRDS.
A careful examination of the circumstances in which birds have done
harm leads to the belief that the damage is usually caused by an abnor-
mal abundance of a species within a limited territory. In such cases
so great is the demand for food that the natural supply is exhausted
and the birds attack some of the products of garden or orchard.
Economically considered, birds are simply natural forces, and it
should be our purpose to ascertain how they may be turned to our
greatest advantage. The best economic conditions are probably ful-
filled when birds are numerous as species and moderately abundant as
individuals. Under such conditions there will be a demand for food
of many kinds, without excessive demand for any one kind. The most.
desirable status would seem to be such a relation of numbers and spe-
cies between birds and insects that the birds would find plenty of food
without preying on useful products, while the insects would be held
in such check that they would neither increase to a harmful extent nor
be completely exterminated. The proper course to pursue, apparently,
is to study the food habits of both birds and insects, to favor the
increase of species which seem best adapted to preserve the proper
balance, and to reduce the numbers of those that prey too greatly on
the products of orchard or farm.
Issued NoyQmber 11, 1907.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—BULLETIN No. 30
C. HART MERRIAM, Chief
BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA
IN RELATION TO THE
FRUIT INDUSTRY
PART I
By F. E. L. BEAL
Assistant, Biological Survey
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1907
Issued November 11, 1907.
U.S. DEPARTMENT -OF AGRICULTURE
BIOLOGICAL SURVEY-—-BULLETIN No. 30
C. HART MERRIAM, Chief
BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA
IN RELATION TO THE
FRUIT INDUSTRY
PART I
By F. BE. L. BEAL
ulssistumt, Biological Surrey
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1907
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U.S. Derarrwent or AGRICULTURE,
BroLtocicaL SURVEY,
Washington, D. C., July 27, 1907.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith as Bulletin No. 30
of the Biological Survey, Part I of a report on the Birds of Cali-
fornia in Relation to the Fruit Industry, by F. E. L. Beal. Fruit
raising in California is a great and growing industry, and the relation
birds bear to it is important. The investigations embodied in the
present report were undertaken with a view to the accurate deter-
mination of the economic status of every species of California bird
that inhabits orchards, in order that it may be possible for the fruit
raiser to discriminate between friends and foes; and for the added
purpose of suggesting remedial measures for the protection of fruit
from destructive species. As expected, the strictly insectivorous
birds prove to be almost wholly beneficial, by far the greater per-
centage of the insects eaten by them being injurious kinds. They are
hence allies of the orchardist and their presence in and near orchards
should be encouraged in every way. Of the species addicted to fruit
eating, not one was found to make its diet wholly, or even chiefly,
of fruit; and the fruit eaters, with possibly the exception of the
house finch, are found to feed upon weed seeds and noxious insects
to such an extent as to fully offset their destructive propensities.
Respectfully,
, : C. Harr Merriam,
Chief, Biological Survey.
Hon. James Wixson,
Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
Page.
IntrOdW Chon: 22s eos et AT eee ane kon eo AS 7-13
FLOWS fin CHii3 2 ee aa ee a oe oe a ney eS Sea alan 13-23
Western: tanagels-45 sa 6 on oe er i pei alee 23-26
DWallowsi4 2222 oe = tone 2 Se Ne Se ak tala ea aah ch. Say teen dl 26-33
Cli S Wall Nyro oso oe 2 = Sect epee Jeans tee eg Fe he el a ants Ops Wee 28-30
‘Western barn swallow___-_-__-____.-_______________-_--__ ee 30-32
Violet-green swallow________-__--__-___ eee 32-33
California Shrike - 222-5 sen bo oe ee as Sen One, ale 33-38
WAL COS 2 2 2528 Oot wes NS ao ae es yrs cag Bohcte ath LR for eel at rth et oe 38-42
Western warbling vireo___!______--8- 39-40
GaSSIN: “VitGO tere a ea Po hte ate = Se a ett Sar 40-41
IUELOM? VAT eC Oise) ens Se oe oe ee ee Oe eee eae ee en 41-42
Warblers ico cc a a a eo ag DR os 42-52
AUGUBON: WaATD] Ohno ce ee cess eee bee wouter cee 43846
MEY EULC: NVETD LOR at seo tard pele eda nial dea ete al pei oat alate had i cane le ne 46
MPownsend Warbler =. os oa eee oe 4647
Numer warbletes. =o pees ee Aes Ge ee ey poh Sale Sse i 47-49
Western yellow throat. <= 2 ae ee hr ee Ge 49-50
Orange-crowned warbler ___....--_--_-__.---_- +--+» --------- +--+ 51
Golden pileolated warbler _______.___________. +--+ 51-52
Western mockine bind ita. cett asi ue oe ey pane i aint ee ee ot 52-55
Caltormla-thrashiers soc. 65.ut-sé.ue dso occst ee a shea eee at te 55-56
SWC Seas ys iat DS of cy 5 Oe un ics wc tn 8 ee OE NS eae 57-66
Béewi le Wren 2025 sSne8) Sarde cence ade erecta eoae ect soe Se AT-60
Western ‘house: wrens =~ = =e Se ee es eeeiese ee eco ose 60-62
Western. ‘marsh: Wviten a... yo 5- ae ne oe ye wees ees 62-64
Cactus wren_________._-_.--------- welche pi pala pea ans lal marl heel Loe 64-65
Other wrens______-_._..-. -.-____. mpeg) ed py she Bist a terface BA pt 65-66
California: <creepePocccce. cices she qe Sees Geegoecesceseeesesutee sass 66
Nuthatches and titmice____._________- 3 Bea gRO SL OR GOSt Ec eee be 66-89
Pyeiay nuthateh ec ee le et ete ese eae seen 67-68
TE PA a ei ee ec is tian cones ce aon ean et ae ieee att 68-70
Chestnut-sided chickadee__._______ ------------------------------- 70-71
When abt bees Se ee a eS Pa sits meat a A ee se ee, 71-74
California- bush: tite= 2-225 =o potiernae ae ae ee eS eee 74-80
Keine) Ofisia ct te 3 Sao eh el Ei in 6 alate wen nt cent Des ae 80-84
Ruby-crowned kinglet_____------------------------- ------------- 81-84
Western golden-crown kinglet_____-_.------------.--------------- SH
Giatcatcheravie2.22 2 A eee eae a ee soe 84-86
Russet-back thrush___________--__-_-___-_-_--------- Pplcpaptins 2 Soil Sy haya aro 86-92
Hermit: thrushiscecocan foc owes eS oe a eee hs eee le ee 92-93
WeSteii: TOD iMate ae ae ee oe agi ences eee es 93-97
Western ‘bliiebinda a0. faeces eee essere sa oee ees 97-100
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Page.
Puate I. California bush tit _-_-__-_________________-_-__---_____ ieantdnieee:
II. Seeds of common weeds eaten by the linnet____________--__---_ 16
ITT,, Audubon; warbler: ose. hye = tee serene nnd & ceria eee ee atts 42
TV... Cactus: wren seset code etescs Bese seegcceeoes ek oe oe eS 64
Vi PIB ibe oc ob ee tees Bonde sees es eee et SY 68
6
BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA IN RELATION TO THE FRUIT
INDUSTRY--PART I.
INTRODUCTION.
In response to numerous complaints from fruit growers concerning
depredations by birds in orchards and vineyards in the Pacific coast
region, investigation of the subject was undertaken by the Biological
Survey several years ago. In conducting this investigation the
writer spent about nineteen months in California, including the fruit
seasons of 1901, 1903, and 1906, during which time he visited the
most important fruit-growing regions of the State, inspected hun-
dreds of orchards, and interviewed many fruit growers. Kindness
and courtesy were everywhere met with, and every facility was ex-
tended by orchardists for the acquisition of information, even to a
suspension of the customary rules with regard to trespass and shoot-
ing on private grounds. In addition to the knowledge gained by
field observations, stomachs of all the species of Pacific coast birds
economically valuable have been collected, examined, and their con-
tents recorded.
When depredations are so widespread and involve so many differ-
ent species of birds, a thorough knowledge of the nature and extent
of the damage done and of the attending circumstances is of great
importance. Next in importance is a knowledge of the conditions
that obtain in fruit-growing regions where depredations by birds do
not occur. This information should enable the fruit grower to adjust
conditions in his own case so as to mitigate if not wholly prevent
the evil.
In the following pages much stress is laid on the nature of the
yearly or seasonal food of some of the more important species of
birds, since it often happens that certain birds are more or less harm-
ful to a particular crop of fruit, and yet the year through, all things
considered, do more good than harm. It must not be forgotten in
this connection that there are very few birds whose habits are wholly
beneficial. Most of them are neither wholly beneficial nor wholly
injurious. They are beneficial at some seasons and injurious at
others. In some localities they are deservedly praised for benefits
conferred; in others the same species are condemned for destructive
7
8 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
habits. With the evidence all in, it is usually possible for the farmer
to properly estimate the status of any given species with reference
to his own farm and his own interests and to adopt measures
accordingly.
It can not be too thoroughly insisted that sound public policy
everywhere forbids the destruction of birds on a large scale for the
purpose of protecting orchard fruits. Wholesale slaughter of birds
in the supposed interest of the orchardist is fortunately rare and
often proceeds from a mistaken idea of their economic relations.
When it is understood that the damage by a certain species is local
and exceptional, that the birds in question are on the whole bene-
ficial and that their destruction will be a loss to the State, the
farmer and the orchardist are usually willing to adopt less drastic
measures in defense of their crops and to spare the birds for the
sake of the general weal.
STATUS OF BIRDS IN NEWLY SETTLED REGIONS.
When a new country is settled, large areas are plowed and brought
under cultivation. In the process great numbers of native shrubs,
weeds, and grasses are destroyed, and various new and exotic plants
and trees are substituted. Coincident with this change in the vege-
table life, and as a necessary consequence of it, great changes in the
conditions and distribution of animal life take place. Some species
are restricted in distribution and greatly reduced in numbers, or even
exterminated, while others become more abundant and more widely
dispersed. The reduction in numbers may occur from actual killing
by man, from the destruction of natural breeding sites through
clearing, and from a diminution of food traceable to the same cause.
The results are exactly the opposite when cultivation and planting
afford a more abundant supply of food, greater facilities for breed-
ing, and better protection from enemies. The natural result of such
conditions is a marked increase in number of the favored species,
and this increase probably explains the great devastation of crops
by birds that occurred on the Atlantic seaboard soon after the first
settlements, and then successively in the States to the westward as
these were gradually settled.
The early days of agriculture in California offer an interesting case
in point. When the native grasses and weeds of the fertile valleys
were destroyed to make room for grain, many species of birds,
notably blackbirds and quails, were suddenly deprived of their natural
subsistence and in place of it were supplied with an abundance of
new and nutritious food. Naturally they preferred the cultivated
grains (wheat, barley, and oats) to the wild oats (.Lvena fatua) upon
which they had largely depended. Still later, when many of the
INTRODUCTION. 9
grain fields gave way to extensive orchards, which gradually crept
up the hillsides and into the canyons, other species of birds began
to utilize the new kinds of food and also the safe nesting sites
afforded by orchard trees. Species that previously attracted little
attention soon increased in numbers because of the increased food
supply, ‘additional facilities for nesting, and the protection afforded
by man, who killed or drove away their natural enemies. Asa result,
some of them suddenly became of great economic importance, owing
to their increased numbers and destructive habits.
MIGRATION OF BIRDS.
Owing to its extent and varied topography, California is rich in
birds, both in species and individuals. Here altitude and topog-
raphy, as well as latitude, govern climate. This fact leads to many
peculiarities in distribution and complicates the study of birds in
their economic and other relations. The movements of birds, too, are
more complex than in the eastern part of the United States. The
regular migration north in the spring and south in the fall, which is
the rule over the greater part of the country, is here supplemented, in
the case of many species, by a migration from the mountains, where
they breed, to the valleys, where they winter. Besides the regular
migrations, at times remarkable incursions of a single species take
place. Such was the flight of mountain tanagers Women ludo-
viciana) in the valleys in May, 1896. In several parts of California
these birds appeared in immense numbers in localities where pre-
viously they had been rarely observed. Their appearance coincided
nearly with the ripening of the cherry crop, to which in some places
they did much damage in spite of the fact that great numbers of
them were shot.
CAUSES OF DEPREDATIONS BY BIRDS.
The failure of customary food supply sometimes leads birds to
forage upon crops which they do not commonly eat. This may be
the explanation of the depredations of robins in the fall and winter
of 1900-1901, when thousands of these birds pillaged the olive
orchards in Santa Clara Valley, the region about Santa Barbara, and
other parts of California. In that year it was as much as the olive
growers could do to save part of their crop. Since then no case of
excessive loss of olives has been reported, though occasionally some
damage has been done.
The amount of damage inflicted by birds upon a crop often depends
upon the surroundings. In the case of orchards in the midst of a
treeless plain depredations are mostly confined to such birds as nest
in them, but they may be visited and damaged by others during
10 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
migration. On the other hand, fruit grown near or in brushy can-
yons or on wooded hills is taken by birds that live in such places; or
a stream flowing through a region of orchards may harbor in the
shrubbery on its banks many birds that do not live in the orchard
itself. 5
Hence depredations by birds may arise: (1) From the settlement
of a region and consequent introduction of new crops, accom-
panied by a diminished supply of natural food, destruction of ene-
mies, and a general change of natural conditions; (2) from failure
of the normal food supply, causing migration in search of food, or
an attack upon some product which the species does not usually eat;
(3) from proximity to a particular crop, in which case the bird natu-
vally eats that which is most available.
CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA COMPARED WITH THOSE IN THE EASTERN
STATES.
Before proceeding to a consideration of particular birds, one point
should be specially noted in connection with the subject of the rela-
tion of birds to fruit in California. Those parts of the State where
fruit is grown are not so well supplied with wild fruits on which
birds feed as are the fruit-growing areas of the Eastern States, or
even of those farther north on the Pacific coast. While California
has an abundance of wild berries which serve as food for birds, they
do not commonly grow near orchards and vineyards.
In the Eastern States a plentiful supply of fruit, as acceptable to
birds as the best products of the orchard or garden (perhaps more
acceptable), is usually present in pastures and along roadsides, so
that it is only where wild fruits are exterminated by cultivation that
birds are forced to eat cultivated kinds. So abundant is wild fruit
in some regions, as in the United States east of the Alleghanies, that
it is safe to say that thousands of bushels of blackberries and rasp-
berries which grow wild everywhere annually fall to the ground and
rot, in spite of the fact that great quantities are gathered and eaten
by man as well as by birds. The same is true of blueberries (Vac-
cinium) and huckleberries (Gaylussacia), which are so abundant in
a wild state that in their season they appear in the markets of most
of the cities and large towns, and are eaten in every country home in
the region where they grow. In addition to these are several species
of dogwood (Cornus), holly (Ilex), cherry (Prunus), Viburnum,
and inany others, all of which are freely eaten by birds.
Although many of these fruit-bearing shrubs are represented in
California by related species, they usually grow in the mountains
remote from fruit-growing districts. In fact, the elderberry (Sam-
bueus), the introduced pepperberry (Schiiniws molle), and an occa-
sional mistletoe berry are the only important uncultivated fruits
INTRODUCTION. 11
that appear in the stomachs of California orchard birds. On the
other hand, in the Eastern States more than 40 species of wild
fruits have been found in the stomachs of a single species—the
Eastern robin. In the general dearth of wild fruits on the horti-
cultural areas of the Pacific coast it is not surprising that when
domestic fruits were first cultivated there the birds gave them a
warm welcome, and the orchardist’s crops suffered accordingly.
Another reason why birds attack fruit in California more than in
the regions farther east is the dryness of the summers, Juicy fruits
proving an acceptable substitute for water. To secure enough water
for their necessities California birds must often fly several miles, while
in the Eastern States localities are few in which water can not be
cbtained within a few rods. In confirmation of the theory that in
attacking fruit liquid for slaking thirst is sought by birds as much as
food, it may be stated that much of the injury done to small juicy
fruits in California, such as grapes and cherries, consists of simple
punctures in the skin, through which apparently nothing but juice
has been drawn.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES.
It would appear most desirable that some of the available fruit-
bearing trees, the fruits of which are of little or no value to man, but
which to birds are even more acceptable than cultivated kinds, should
be freely introduced into California for the protection of the orchard-
ist. That some of them would thrive there hardly admits of doubt.
Morus alba, the Russian mulberry, is one of the best, the fruit having
little value unless as food for birds. All fruit-eating species are fond
of it. Both the red and the black mulberries are equally sought after,
‘but are not often planted for birds alone. The paper mulberry
(Broussonetia papyrifera) is hardy and is a favorite bird food. Sev-
eral species of Prunus or cherry, including the choke cherry (P. vir-
giniana), and especially its western form (P. demissa), the black
cherry (P.serotina) ,and the bird cherry (P. pennslyvanica) ave of great
value in protecting fruit crops, birds almost invariably selecting their
fruit in preference to the cultivated varieties. There are also several
ornamental varieties of cherries, such as the European birdcherry (P.
avium), P. pendula of Japan, and P. sphwrocarpa of Brazil, which
are hardy, the latter in warm regions only, and valuable as bird foods.
Both the pepper tree, Schinus molle, and the elder, Sambucus, now
abundant in California, are eaten by many birds, and both may be
planted near orchards with the certainty that they will serve to pro-
tect them.
Another measure recommended for the protection of orchard fruit
is a supply of water accessible to the birds. Drinking places for
birds in every large orchard would tend to reduce the injury done to
12 ‘BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
fruit, and would serve the added purpose of attracting insectivorous
birds te the locality. Birds undoubtedly select breeding places with
reference to the convenience of food and water, and a constant supply
of the latter attracts to the vicinity many desirable species. The
insectivorous kinds would more than pay the orchardist for his trouble
in their behalf by feeding upon the insects that injure his trees;
while fruit-eating species, like the linnet, being able to quench their
thirst with water, would not be compelled to resort to fruit for this
purpose.
The writer once observed a leaky hydrant situated between two
rather extensive areas of orchards. The little pool maintained by the
drip of this pipe was almost constantly surrounded by birds which
all the time were coming and going, so that the number that visited
it each day must have been well up in the thousands. An arrange-
ment for this purpose need be neither elaborate nor expensive, and
would serve a useful purpose.
READJUSTMENT OF CONDITIONS.
In relation to the destruction of crops by birds in a comparatively
newly planted region, experience everywhere shows that after a time
there is a partial readjustment of conditions, so that inroads by birds
become much less common or wholly cease. On the Atlantic side
of the continent at the present time, with the exception of the
ravages of bobolinks in the rice fields of the southeastern coast States,
few if any cases are known of the annual destruction of crops by
birds, while during the first half of the nineteenth century the
several species of blackbirds were a constant menace to grain. Pres-
ent immunity results from the fact that increased density of popula--
tion has destroyed the nesting sites and reduced the numbers of some
of the most noxious birds. This readjustment of conditions is likely
to take place sooner or later in all cases where the balance of nature
is disturbed, but in most cases the process may be hastened by the
adoption of measures like the ones above mentioned.
DAMAGES BY -BIRDS GENERALLY.
Study of a number of cases of serious damage by birds leads to the
conclusion that as a rule such damage is due to the concentration of
a great number of birds within a limited area, usually of a single
species or several closely allied ones. If the birds are seed eaters,
they visit the grain fields and leave ruin and destruction in their path;
if fruit lovers, they seek the orchard and play havoc with the crop.
Ingtances of this kind are the raids of bobolinks in the rice fields of
HOUSE FINCH. 13
the southeastern Atlantic coast, of the blackbirds in the grain fields
of the Mississippi Valley, and of the linnets in the fruit orchards of
California. It is seldom that complaints are made of birds in gen-
eral; one or a few species are usually the culprits, the reason for
which is evident—too many individuals of the same species in one
locality eating the same things. But when many species are present
in normal numbers, such a variety of tastes is to be gratified that no
one kind of food is unduly drawn upon.
BIRDS THAT INJURE- FRUIT IN CALIFORNIA.
When a fruit grower in northern California is asked what birds are
most injurious to his crops, he almost invariably mentions first the
linnet, or house finch; then successively the blackbird, the oriole, the
grosbeak, and the thrush. Or, if his ranch is in a narrow valley or
canyon, or near wooded hills, he may place the California jay or the
quail after the linnet as the next worst enemy to fruit.
The writer is pleased to be able to testify to a healthy state of
feeling on the part of the great majority of California fruit growers
toward the bird population. While many of them stated that they
still suffered loss, none advocated measures for the extermination, or .
even the material decrease, of birds. The feeling seems to be prac-
tically universal that birds as a class, notwithstanding their sins,
still do more good than harm. “We can’t get along without the
birds,” was the sentiment voiced by many and really indorsed by all.
HOUSE FINCH.
(Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis.)
The house finch, or linnet, has been perhaps the subject of more
complaint on the score of destroying fruit in California than all
other species of birds together. This. bird occurs on the western
coast of the United States from Mexico northward to Oregon, and
extends eastward to the western edge of the Mississippi Valley.
Except in the mountains, it is a resident throughout most of Cal-
fornia, but in certain parts of the northern half of the State it dis-
appears for a few months during fhe winter season. In the southern
half and in the warm sheltered valleys of the north it is always
present. It is a hardy, vigorous species, well able to take care of
itself and maintain its ground wherever it obtains a foothold. It is
a prolific breeder, raising several broods in the season, and apparently
has no enemy (except man) that exercises any perceptible restrictive
influence upon its increase and distribution. It takes kindly to the
presence of man, and utilizes his improvements for shelter and food,
14 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
DESTRUCTION OF FRUIT.
Observations in orchards show that in the fruit season the linnet
is not backward in taking what it considers its share of the crop, and
as it spends much of the time there, field observations alone would
lead to the conclusion that fruit was its principal article of diet.
Examination of the stomach contents, however, proves that such is
not the case, and when we find how small is the relative percentage
of fruit eaten, it seems strange that its fruit-eating proclivities should
have attracted so much attention. But it must be borne in mind that
the bird is wonderfully abundant, which is one of the primary condi-
tions necessary for any species to become injurious.
Like most fringilline birds, the linnet has a strong, conical beak,
with which it can cut the skin of the toughest fruit and reach the
pulp. While such an instrument is very effective in attacking fruit,
this is evidently not the use for which nature primarily designed it.
It is customary to divide passerine birds roughly into two groups,
the hard-billed and the soft-billed species, the former of which are
supposed to feed on seeds while the latter subsist upon fruit and
insects. From the standpoint of this classification the linnet would
appear to be most emphatically a seed eater, and examination of the
contents of stomachs of the species confirms the correctness of this
view. Seeds of plants, mostly those of noxious weeds, constitute about
seven-eighths of its food for the year, and in some months amount to
much more. In view of this fact it seems strange that the house
finch has acquired such a reputation for fruit eating, and it can be
explained only upon the principle already laid down that in the fruit
districts the bird is too numerous for the best economic interests.
While each house finch eats but a small modicum of fruit, the aggre-
gate of all that is eaten or destroyed by the species is something
tremendous.
Moreover, it must be noted that not all of the fruit destroyed is
eaten. Only one peck from the strong bill is necessary to break the
skin of the pear, peach, or cherry, and the fruit is spoiled; the linnet
by no means invariably visits the same individual fruit a second time
to finish it, but often attacks a fresh one at each meal. This is proved
by the large number of half-eaten fruits, either on the tree or on the
ground beneath.
Tn large orchards, however, complaints against the linnet are fewer
than formerly. Tere the damage is more widely distributed and con-
sequently less noticeable than when confined to a few trees. It is
probable that the area of orcharding has increased more rapidly than
the linnets, so that the proportional injury is less. At present the
chief complainants are the owners of small town lots, where a few
trees are grown to supply fruit for home use. As linnets are usually
HOUSE FINCH. 15
more numerous in villages and suburbs than in the country, trees in
gardens are often entirely stripped.
INJURY TO FRUIT BUDS.
‘
It is a little singular that formerly most of the complaints against
the linnet were that it destroyed the buds and blooms of fruit trees
instead of the fruit itself. Thus in 1886 Mr. R. P. Chandler, of
Riverside, San Bernardino County, wrote:
The bird which is commonly known as the linnet, or crimson house finch, has
been observed to do great injury to the apricot crops of this section by feeding
on the fruit buds from the time they begin to swell until the trees are in bloom.
Two years ago my entire apricot crop was destroyed by the above birds, and IT
took the opportunity to establish the facts of the case by shooting a large numw-
ber for the purpose of examination. A great many of the birds that were shot
had small bits of buds, etc., stuck on their bills by the gummy substances of the
fruit buds. A further examination would invariably result in finding each and
every bird’s stomach filled with buds.
The same year J. C. Galloway, of Tustin, Cal., stated:
The common linnet does great injury to the buds of the apricot, eating out
the center and destroying all the fruit buds on the tree in many cases, usually
in January and February, in this latitude.
Wiliam Proud, of Rancho Chico, Cal., accuses the linnet of eating
both buds and fruit. He says:
The burion, house finch, or linnet, is by far the most nernicious bird we have
to deal with in the orchard. He arrives in March and immediately commences
his ravages on the buds of the cherry, peach, plum, persimmon, ete. The first
cherry showing a red cheek is sampled by this most rapacious little bird. Then
comes the fruit of the apricot, peach, and fig. For the latter he shows a decided
partiality. When the fruit crop is exhausted he immediately turns his atten-
tion to all kinds of millets, sorghum, Egyptian corn, and other small seeds.
As showing how destructive the bird is to fruit, especially in small
orchards, the following is quoted from Dr. T. S. Palmer, then at
Berkeley, Alameda County, Cal. :
The crimson house finch is the only bird that does any considerable damage
to fruit. As soon as the cherries begin to ripen the birds keep close watch of
the trees, and if the fruit is not gathered as soon as ripe they soon dispose of a
large portion of it. In our garden there are about a dozen cherry trees of
various kinds, and if not very closely watched, within a week or two from the
time when the fruit first begins to ripen almost every tree will be completely
Stripped. Of course, in a large orchard the damage would not be so noticeable,
but still might be considerable. Later in the season when the cherries are
gone, the finches attack the plums and pears.
F. H. Holmes, of Rio Vista, Solano County, Cal., under date of
September, 1886, states:
Our worst fruit pest is the crimson house finch, which, on account of its
abundance and familiarity, it is impossible to scare off. They injure mostly
cherries, figs, berries, peaches, and apricots. They often only peck each fruit
16 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
a little, and then the bees and wasps take hold and finish the work. * * *
Birds that destroy the earlier fruits are generally regarded as the greater
nuisance, particularly to the farmer who has not a very extensive orchard.
Where fruit is handled as soon as it is in the proper condition, or for an orchard
of from ten to one hundred acres or more, 1 have never seen these birds plenti-
ful enough to do a great amount of damage. In some parts of the State I
presume they might do more.
In regard to the habit of the linnet of eating ripe fruit, Dr. A. K.
Fisher says:
In this valley [Owens], both at Independence and Lone Pine, the species
[the linnet] was found to be very destructive to the ripened peaches during the
middle of August. Flocks of birds occurred in the orchards, and in some
places hardly an example of the ripe fruit could be found which was not more
or less mutilated. A number of birds shot in the peach orchards at Lone Pine
had little except the pulp of this fruit in their gullets or stomachs. It was
known as the ‘ peach bird.’ @
Examination of linnet stomachs does not reveal any very consid-
erable number of blossom buds, and it is probable that but little of
the alleged mischief to fruit blossoms is done by this bird. Moreover,
it may be stated that in most cases budding by birds does little, if --...
any, damage. It is only in very rare instances that birds take all
the buds from a tree, or even enough to cause considerable Joss. On
the contrary, buds are usually superabundant, and budding, whether
by birds or by man, is frequently beneficial, relieving the trees from
excessive bearing and markedly improving both size and quality
of fruit.
THE LINNET NATURALLY A SEED EATER.
Before the settlement of the Pacific coast region it is evident that
the linnet must have subsisted almost entirely upon the seeds of
plants growing wild in the valleys and canyons. With the advent
of civilization two new articles of food were presented—grain and
fruit. It would seem natural for the linnet, especially equipped as
the bird is to extract the kernel of seeds, to have chosen the former,
as did the blackbirds, doves, and some other species; but for some
reason best known to itself it selected fruit. How much the char-
acter of the food had to do with the bird’s choice it is impossible to
say, but it is probable that attendant conditions greatly influenced
the result. Grain is grown on large, open areas, with few or no
trees to afford nesting sites, while orchards offer every inducement
to linnets as a permanent residence. Moreover, much of the fruit-
growing section of the State is divided into small holdings, each with
a dwelling with accompanying barns, sheds, and other buildings that
afford ideal homes for these birds. Having thus chosen the orchard
@North American Fauna No. 7, U. 8. Dept. of Agric., p. 80, 1893.
Bull. 30, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE II
Fig. 8. Fig. 9.
SEEDS OF COMMON WEEDS EATEN BY THE LINNET.
Fig. 1—Napa thistle ( Centaurea melitensis). Fig. 2.—Black mustard (Brassica nigra).
Fig. 3.—Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarinm). Fig. 4.—Knotweed ( Polygonum aviculare),
Fig. 5.—Tarweed (Madia sativa), Fig. 6.—Burweed (Amsinckia tesselata). Pig. 7.—
Turkey mullen (Eremocarpus sctigerus). Fig. 8.—Milk thistle (Mariana mariniana).
Fig. 9.—Poison oak ( Rhus diversiluba).
HOUSE FINCH. iv
for its home it was only a matter of course that the bird should
select as its secondary food the nearest available source of supply,
namely, fruit. For seeds, which are to be regarded as the linnet’s
natural food, grow about the borders of orchards and by roadsides,
and hence are readily obtained.
Although the great bulk of fringilline birds normally subsist
principally upon seeds, at certain times, notably in the breeding
season, they eat a considerable quantity of animal food, mostly
insects. Moreover, their young while still in the nest are usually
fed largely, and in some cases entirely, upon insects. Quite the con-
trary is true of the linnet. The adults eat only a small percentage
of animal food, even in the breeding period, and feed their nestlings
no more, perhaps less, than they eat themselves. In this respect the
Iinnet is probably unique in its family. Such animal food as the
bird does eat, however, is much to its credit. Plant-lice (Aphide),
especially the woolly species, constitute a large portion of this part
of the linnet’s food; caterpillars and a few beetles make up most of
the remainder.
It is, however, as a seed eater that the linnet stands supreme.
Over 86 percent of its food for the year consists of weed seeds, and it
is in this field, if anywhere, that the bird redeems itself from the
odium of its other misdemeanors. When the immense number of
linnets in California is taken into consideration, with the added fact.
that each one destroys several hundred seeds daily, most of which are
potential weeds, it must be conceded that the bird renders a valuable
service to agriculture, for the sum total of weeds so destroyed is
enormous.
FOOD.
In the laboratory investigation of the food of the linnet 1,206
stomachs were examined, including 46 of nestlings. All were from
California, and from points fairly well distributed over the State,
with the exception of the northern quarter. The greater number were
from the fruit-growing sections, so that the western coast region
is better represented than the part east of the Coast Ranges. They
were distributed through the year as follows:
SV ATMALY oreo em ers Sh a eons 35 ART UTS Gad owe ge re an pe ae ee ae 118
WODEUATY js os . J85''| Septembeis as see eres see 123
Morel 222 essa en sees eee 186) | OC Oberstar ee 108
SANT Fle 28 cae Sa oS Due ns S0::| Novemberic- 222---.s.o-ss25s5 25
MAY => (22am. obs250262..cs ee 74 | December --------------------- 54
OMIM G: Se oe teh es Se oS tn tebe phe, 167
PU Yes aed yt hte ees Eee ek 148 Totilsccsecssn eoscsssaecS 1, 206
9379—No. 30—07——2
18 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
In the first analysis of the food components the two principal
elements are found to be: Animal matter, 2.4¢ percent; vegetable
matter, 97.6 percent.
Animal food.—This brings into strong rehef the linnet’s sins of
omission. Living in a country where constant war against noxious
insects is necessary, the bird takes little or no part in the contest, and
in return for benefits derived from man renders but slight service in
this direction.
The small portion of animal food it takes, however, consists almost
wholly of insects and a large proportion of it of plant-lice (Aphi-
didxe), which from their small size do not attract the notice of many
species of birds. They appear, however, to be the favorite animal
food of the linnet, and it is noticeable that a large percentage of them
are the woolly species. Many of the birds when killed had their
beaks smeared with the remains of woolly aphides. As these insects
are notoriously harmful to many trees and other plants, any bird that
destroys them is a benefactor. It is to be regretted that the linnet
should not indulge to a greater extent a taste so well directed. Were
25 percent of its food made up of woolly aphides the fruit it destroys
would be well paid for. The other contingent of animal matter
found in the linnet’s stomach consists of small caterpillars and a few
beetles, chiefly weevils. Most birds that feed on plant-lice eat also
the ants that are usually in attendance upon them, but the only trace
of ants or of other Hymenoptera in the stomachs of linnets was one
ant’s jaw. Grasshoppers, the favorite food of so many birds, were
represented by a mere fragment in one stomach.
Vegetable food.—The most interesting part of the food of the lin-
net is the vegetable portion. This naturally falls into three cate-
gories: Weed seed, which amounts to 86.2 percent of the annual food;
fruit, 10.5 percent; and other miscellaneous vegetable matter, 0.9 per-
cent.
Fruit.—Fruit is represented in stomachs taken in January by a
mere trace. This was probably of no value, only ungathered fruit or
perhaps belated olives. In stomachs taken in February no fruit was
found, but in ensuing months it appears in small quantities, increas-
ing irregularly until August, when a maximum of 27.4 percent was
eaten. In September a trifle less was taken than in August, and after
that the quantity decreases until December, in which month a little
less than 2 percent was eaten. In March the fruit amounted to
about 6 percent, a quantity hard to account for except on the suppo-
sition that it was waste fruit left over from the previous year. The
« While percentages are sometimes given in fraction, it need not be assumed
that extreme accuracy is intended; such figures must be taken as only an
approximation to the truth.
HOUSE FINCH. 19
amount eaten in this month is somewhat surprising in view of the
fact that in April less than 2 percent was consumed, and it is not until
June that the percentage becomes important. It is possible that the
supply of weed seed of the previous year may be exhausted by March,
when the new crop has not yet ripened; so waste fruit is taken for
want of something better.
It is practically impossible to identify particular kinds of fruit in
a bird’s stomach unless characteristic seeds or stones are present.
These are rarely eaten by the linnet, which seems to prefer orchard
fruit. Cherries, apricots, peaches, and prunes appear to be the favor-
ites. This choice arises, no doubt, from the character of its beak
already described. While thrushes and other ‘ soft billed’ birds pre-
fer the smaller kinds commonly known as berries, which can be swal-
lowed whole, the linnet attacks the larger kinds, which yield readily
to its powerful beak. Linnets are particularly fond of small pears,
like the Seckel, and often attack them even when they are hard, a
fortnight or more before ripe. If undisturbed they will eat every one
on a tree, leaving the core attached to dry and blacken in the sun.
A few strawberries and fewer blackberries or raspberries were the
only cultivated small fruits that could be identified in the stomachs
of linnets. A number of birds from the southern part of the State
had fed freely on figs, identified by their seeds.
If the bird preferred an exclusive diet of fruit, there is no reason
why its taste should not be gratified during the greater part of the
year. When cherries are ripe in California linnets need eat nothing
else. The cherry crop would be ample for all their wants, though
perhaps not much would be left for marketing. The record, how-
ever, shows that in June, which is practically cherry month in the
central part of the State, less than one-seventh of the linnet’s food
consists of fruit. Apricots are ripe in many parts of the State
before the month closes, so that lack of fruit can not be urged as a
reason why the bird should subsist so largely upon weed seed. In
July apricots, peaches, and early figs are available, but still the linnet
eats them only to the extent of one-fifth of its diet, and even in
August and September, the months of maximum consumption, fruit
constitutes only a little more than one-fourth of the food.
Weed seeds.—The greater portion of the linnet’s food, as already
stated, consists of the seeds of weeds, the most important of which
are those of the Napa thistle, black mustard, Alfilaria, knotweed, and
turkey mullen (see Pl. IT, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 7), the total consumption of
which for the year is 86.2 percent. This record is not excelled by
that of any other bird studied, with the possible exception of the tree
sparrow (Spizella monticola), whose food, however, consists largely
of grass seed, much of which is useful. As there is an unaccountable
20 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
increase in the fruit eaten in March, so there is an unexplained de-
crease in the consumption of weed seed during that month. With
that exception, the amount taken in each month decreases in a fairly
regular series from a maximum of 99.8 percent in January to a mini-
mum of 64 in August. From this-‘month the quantity of seed in the
stomachs increases steadily to December, when the record ends with
97.9 percent.
It seems probable that such a constant and persistent eater of weed
seed would also eat considerable grain. Stomach records show that
wheat was identified in one stomach, oats in three, and something very
like the skin from kernels of corn in five. In this connection it can
be said that if the linnet does not eat grain it certainly is not for want
of opportunity. It is evident then that weed seed is taken by the
linnet simply because it likes it.
SUMMARY.
It is natural to conclude that the food most frequently found in a
bird’s stomach is the kind preferred. Applying this test to the linnet
we find that of the total 1,206 stomachs examined, 1,133, or 94 percent
of all, held weed seed, and that 807, or nearly 67 percent of the whole,
contained no other food. On the other hand, fruit was found in 297°
stomachs, or 24 percent of the whole number, but only 38, or 3 per-
cent of all, were entirely filled with it. In other words, there were
only 63 stomachs that did not contain weed seed, while 909 contained
no fruit.
The miscellaneous portions of the linnet’s vegetable food amount
to only about nine-tenths of 1 percent of the food of the year, and
all was found in 28 stomachs. Stamens and other parts of flowers
were found in 14 stomachs only, which does not indicate that the
injury to fruit buds by the linnet is serious. One stomach contained
a small leaf gall. Ten stomachs held matter denominated as rubbish,
consisting of bits of dead leaves, rotten wood, etc., evidently swal-
lowed unintentionally with other food.
From the foregoing it appears that, contrary to the statements and
beliefs of many, the linnet is not a constant and persistent devourer
of fruit. Examination of the contents of many stomachs shows that
fruit is far from being its principal article of diet, and it is probable
that what is taken is eaten for the sake of variety or for the juice. A
far greater quantity of fruit is eaten by the cherry bird (Ampelis
cedrorum) and by the robin (Aferula migratoria) , both of which occur
in California. :
PROTECTION OF FRUIT FROM LINNETS.
In the case of both these birds, however, the greater part of the
fruit eaten consists of wild species, and this fact suggests a method
HOUSE FINCH. 21
by which the California fruit grower may protect his orchards from
the attack of the linnet—namely, by planting around orchards shrubs
and trees the fruit of which will serve to attract birds away from
the marketable kinds. There are many fruit-bearing shrubs and
trees whose products, while worthless to man, are likely to prove more
attractive to linnets than are the orchard fruits. That linnets will
eat wild fruit appears from the fact that elderberries (Sambucus)
were found in 49 stomachs, and their apparent partiality for culti-
vated fruits is readily explained by the fact that usually they are
the only kinds obtainable.
FOOD OF YOUNG LINNETS.
Of the 1,206 stomachs of linnets included in this investigation, 46
were those of young birds taken from the nest, The young vary in
age from birds 2 days old to those nearly ready to flv. In order to
ascertain the exact difference, if any, between the food of the nes-
tlings and that of the adults, the contents of these 46 stomachs were
tabulated by themselves and the percentages of the various items of
food calculated. The results show 2.4 percent of animal food to
97.6 of vegetable. The animal food consists mostly of the larve of
a minute beetle which lives on decayed fruit, with a few plant-lice
and one small fragment of a grasshopper, the only one found in any
of the stomachs. The vegetable food consists entirely of weed seed,
the most important of which are the following: Sunflower, bur weed,
milk thistle, and poison oak. (See Pl. I, figs. 6, 8, 9.)
No fact connected with the food habits of the linnet is more sur-
prising than this. The great body of the fringilline birds, though
subsisting largely and in most cases almost entirely upon vegetable
food in adult life, feed their young in the early stage of existence
almost exclusively upon insects or other animal food, and begin to
give them vegetable food only when nearly ready to leave the nest.
It is doubtful if there is an exception to this rule so pronounced as the
linnet. As calculated, the nestlings ate actually less animal food than
their parents, but the difference is so small that it may be accidental.
ECONOMIC PLACE OF THE LINNET.
Admitting, as we must, that the orchardist has just grounds of
complaint against the linnet on account of depredations upon fruit,
the bird’s claim to favorable consideration must rest upon its valuable
services as a consumer of weed seed and upon its esthetic value. It
is trim and pretty, has a sweet song, and in many ways is a pleasing
adjunct of rural life—in fact, many Californians believe that the
limet, in spite of its sins of commission and omission, should be
22 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
protected. That the complete extermination of the species, even if
possible, is not desirable will be readily allowed, but that a reduction
of its present numbers would be for the general welfare can not rea-
sonably be denied. Were it possible to destroy half the linnets in the
fruit-growing sections of the State, there is no doubt that most of the
complaints against the species would cease. As it is, the fruit grower
must protect himself by such devices as are suggested by local con-
ditions, and bear in mind that, while as an individual he may suffer,
the bird, on the whole, is doing the State good service.
LIST OF SEEDS FOUND IN STOMACHS OF LINNETS.
Following is a list of identified seeds, with the number of stomachs
in which each kind was found. The same kinds of seeds were of
course contained in many more stomachs, but were so finely ground
up as to be unidentifiable. It is not unlikely that in identifying the
seeds specifically errors have been made, but it is believed that few,
if any, of the generic identifications are erroneous. A few seeds
were found which have not yet been identified.
sedge: (@arCRSp. 2. eee ace seco se Soe ete uke sene eae 21
Nortel: CRMC ACC tOS CHG ) oe cope eae eg a ease lee oe i 3
Knotweed (Polygonum avieulare). (PI. T1, fig. 4)... -- ee 128
Catcbiy CSiHemt: Siesta ee Wi aiacs aee ae 51
Chickweed (CSCCW GING: “NLOUHNO sa 2 2a See ee nts ee eee eo eee See 21
OPUIE MSOF VY ce ce cee ecm meritneneeusic ne roi ei eda 14
Amaranth (Amarantus retroflexus et al.) ~~~ ~~ eee 108
OTA, AT SIO) on ea ected & ho eee oR Byes 2
Miner’s lettuce (J/ontia perfoliata) ~~~ 5 5 eee eee eee il
Wild turnip (Brassica campestris) ~~ ~~~ 5 es ee eee 138
Black mustard (Brassica nigra). (PI. 11, fig. 2) ~~ eee 83
Wild radish (Raphanus sutirus) ~~--- ~~ eee 108
Geranium (Geranium dissectum) ~~ --- ~~~ e+ 3
Alfilaria (Hrodiwim moschatwia) 0-2-2. 22-2 eee eee -
Alfilaria (Hrodium cicutarium), (Pl 11, fig. 3) ~~ 2 eee | we
Yellow sorrel (O.ralis corniculata) ~~ eee 1
Turkey mullen (Mremocarpus setigerus). (Pl. 11, fig. 7) -.------------ 17
Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba). (Pl 11, fig. )) 2 - eee eee 1
Burweed (Awmsinehia tessclata). (PL II, fig. 6)... 2; 3
Nightshade (Solu aigrim) 0.2 22-22-22 eee 4
Western ragweed (Ambrosia psilostaehya) 2. 22 3
Sunflower (Helianthus sp.) -.--------- > (2Sé shies {SS eoeSees 5
Mayweed (Anthenis cotula) 9-20-00 1
rroundsel (Senecio vulgaris) 00002 ne 21
Lesser tarweed (Deinandra fasciculata) 0002 ee - 1
Tarweed (Madia satira). (Pl. IL, fig. 4) ~~~ Ee, BEBE eee e este ae oe oe 2 5
Milk thistle (Mariana mariniana). (PL II, fig. 8). 022-22 e+ 3
Napa thistle (Centaureu melitensis), (VI. 11, fig. 1) 2-2 60
WESTERN TANAGER. 23
The following table shows the percentages of the various items of
food of the linnet for each month of the year:
Table of percentage of food of the linnet for each month in year.
Vegetable food eaten.
sats ee ee ;
onth. stomachs 001 . Tota
examined.| eaten. aces Fruit. rane eo
Percent. | Percent. | Percent. | Percent. | Percent.
88 0.0 99.8 0.2 0.0 100.0
35 2.9) 97.1 0.0 0.0 97.1
186 1.0 89.5 5.8 3.6 99.0
80 5.8 92.5 1.7 0.0 94.2
74 6.3 88.9 4.8 0.0 93.7
167 3.9 81.6 13.4 1.2 96.1
148 239) 76.5 19.7 1.5 97.8
118 ak 64.0 27.4 1.5 92.9
| 123 0.1 71.6 26.7 1.6 99.9
eat 108 0.0 83.5 15.6 0.9 100.0
INOVEMIDGR: 5,5,<1ai0c25jnisherssicitintntie execs Oh ‘ 25 0.0 91.7 8.3 0.0 100. 0
December sccicevsecacvesctitedsaontasetie 54 0.0 97.8 1.8 0.4 100. 0
EOC aiesrorci ties ufarscinidetecnasstuii hewiaraiaied l De QOG Alta nai.h sscecte| eee ie NN ate es tsycenstoal| ahaa ans (aims ciall cies oem aes
PAV OLE GE oes sssccerdreeares aianteeeoetis at Baieh aha tclenslane 2.4 86.2 10.4 0.9 97.5
|
WESTERN TANAGER.
(Piranga ludoviciana.)
The western tanager, like the robin, occasionally becomes a nuisance
in the orchard. It breeds in the mountainous regions of California
and northward, and as a rule is not common in the fruit-growing
sections.
DAMAGE TO CHERRY CROP.
There are, however, times during migration when it fairly swarms
in some of the fruit-raising regions, and unfortunately this sometimes
happens just at the time when the cherry crop is ripening. The bird
is a late breeder and does not seem to care to get to its nesting ground
before the last of June or early July. It is thus enabled to begin in
the southern part of the State when cherries are ripening there, and
leisurely follow the ripening fruit northward. The year 1896 wit-
nessed an incursion of these tanagers, when they swarmed over much
of the State and destroyed a large part of the cherry crop.
Probably the best account of this occurrence is that of W. O. Emer-
son (published in the Condor, Vol. V, 1903, p. 64). Mr. Emerson
says:
One of the most wonderful occurrences of the movements of birds in the sea-
son of migration which ever came under my notice, took place at Hayward
during May, 1896, when countless numbers of Piranga Iudoviciana, er Louisiana
tanagers, began to make their appearance between May 12 und 14. From the
18th to the 22d they were to be seen in endless numbers, moving off through the
hills and canyons to their summer breeding range in the mountains. This con-
tinued till the 28th, and by June 1 only here and there a straggling member of
24 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
the flock was to be seen. They were first found feeding on early cherries, in
an orchard situated along the steep bank of a creek, on the edge of rolling hills,
well covered with a thick growth of live oaks, which faced the orchard on the
east. To this thick cover they would fly, after filling themselves with cherries,
and rest till it was time to eat again. ‘This they would keep up from daylight
to dark, coming and going singly all day, without any noise whatever being heard.
Two men were kept busy shooting them as fast as they came into the trees
which lay on the side next to the oak-covered hills. * * * After the first
week, I found on going here (May 17), that dozens on dozens of the birds were
lying about. * * ™ Tanagers lay about.everywhere, and no doubt many must
have flown off to die in the bushes or on the hillsides. * * * I noticed one
fact of the restriction of the taunagers to the orchards along the hill edges. None
were found, so to speak, in the larger orchards abouc the town of Hayward.
x oo ' Mar. H. A. Gaylord, of Pasadena, Cal., in a letter under date of June 16,
1896, states that ‘‘ they were seen singly from April 23 to May 1. From this
date up to May 5 their numbers were greatly increased, and by May 5 there was
an unusually large number of them. Then for about ten days, until May 16,
the great wave of migration was at its height. Tauagers were seen everywhere,
and noticed by everyone. After May 20 they decreased in numbers, and by
May 26 the last ones had left the valley.” * * * Healso says: ‘The damage
Gone to cherries in one orchard was so great that the sales of the fruit which
was left, did not balance the bills for poison and ammunition. The tanagers
lay all over the orchard, und were, so to speak, ‘corded up’ by hundreds under
the trees.”
There must have been thousands of tanagers destroyed all through the path
of their movement along the State, as they worked their way to the breeding
grounds.
Here are two accounts of this great flight of tanagers—one from
Pasadena, the other from Hayward, 330 miles farther north as the
bird flies. The time taken by the tanagers in traversing this dis-
tance was only eight days, so it would appear that individual birds
did not spend much time in the same orchard. Such sporadic flights
are hard to account for. The tanagers are in California every year,
and every year they migrate to their nesting grounds in spring and
return in fall, but only at long intervals do they swarm in such
prodigious numbers. Evidently the migration ordinarily takes place
along the mountains where the birds are not noticed. It is possible
that in some years the mountain region lacks the requisite food, and
so the migrating birds are obliged to descend into the valleys. This
would seem to be the most plausible explanation of the occurrence—
that is, that the usual line of migration is along the Sierra Nevada,
Int some years, owing to searcity of food, or other cause, the flight
is foreed farther west into the Coast Ranges, where the birds find
the ripening cherries. The damage done by this species, however,
is not confined exclusively to the rare occasions when they appear in
such extraordinary uumbers, R. H. Carr, of Redlands, southern
California, wrote us in June, 1899:
Without examining any stomachs it is easy {o report the value of the Louisi-
ana tanager to the fruit growers near here. In the city they seem to keep
WESTERN TANAGER. 25
almost entirely on the Grevillea trees, sipping the sweet liquid that exudes
from the blossoms. But the Andrews Brothers, whose cherry and apple ranch
is in the upper Yucaipe Valley, report that the tanagers destroyed about $4,000
worth of cherries, being almost the entire crop. They used powder and shot
liberally, but did not save the crop.
It is to be regretted that some of the stomachs of these tanagers
were not saved, in order that the diet of the species might be ascer-
tained with precision. The only material available for examination
consists of 46 stomachs from various parts of the State, during the six
months from April to September, inclusive. This number is entirely
too small to afford positive data as to the regular food habits of the
bird, but undoubtedly points in the right direction. Although the
testimony of field observers shows that this tanager eats a good deal
of fruit, analysis of the stomach contents proves that over 82 percent
of the food for the six months indicated above consists of insects, and
the remainder, nearly 18 percent, of fruit, with a mere trace of seeds of
a conifer.
Insect food.—The largest item of the animal food is Hymenoptera,
most of which are wasps, with some ants. Altogether they amount to
56 percent of the food for the six months, and in August they reach
75 percent. (They reach 92 percent in April, but only one stomach
was taken in that month, so the record is not reliable.) Hemiptera
stand next in importance, with 8 percent. They are mostly stink-
bugs, with a few cicadas. Beetles amount to 12 percent of the food,
of which less than 1 percent are useful Carabidw. The remainder
are mostly click-beetles (Elateride) and the metallic wood-borers
(Buprestidae), two very harmful families. The former in the larval
stage are commonly known as wireworms, and bore into and destroy
or badly injure many plants. The Buprestids, while in the larval
stage, are wood-borers of the worst description. Grasshoppers were
eaten to the amount of 4 percent, and caterpillars to the extent of less
than 2 percent.
Fruit.—The greater part of the fruit eaten appeared to be the pulp
of some large kind like peaches or apricots. One stomach contained
seeds of elderberries; another the seeds and stems of mulberries, and
two the seeds of raspberries or blackberries. Nearly all these
stomachs were collected in the mountains, away from extensive
orchards, but still the birds had obtained some fruit, probably
cultivated.
SUMMARY.
It is evident from the testimony that great damage from this
species occurs only at rare intervals and during the spring migration.
The greatest losses occurred in May, 1896, when the damage to the
cherry crop in certain localities was most disastrous. As, under ordi-
nary circumstances, the greater part of the food of this bird consists
26 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
of insects, many of them harmful, the tanager has a fair claim to con-
sideration at the hands of the farmer and even of the orchardist.
It is probable that means may be found to prevent, at least in part,
the occasional ravages of the tanager on the cherry crop. The tan-
ager, like the robin, prefers to swallow fruit whole, and as the latter
takes small wild cherries in preference to the larger, cultivated kinds
when both are equally accessible, it is probable that the tanager would
do the same; and it is suggested that a number of wild cherry trees
planted around California orchards might prove an economical in-
vestment for the orchardist.
SWALLOWS.
Swallows are the light cavalry of the avian army—always on the
move, always on the skirmish line, ever gathering stragglers from
the insect camps. They furnish another instance, and perhaps the
most remarkable one, of change of habit induced by civilization. In
eastern United States the bank swallow and the rough-wing are the
only species that adhere persistently to their original nesting sites.
In the West a third species may be added to these, the violet-green
swallow: but there all the swallows are somewhat less domestic than
in the East. It is probable, also, that some species, notably the barn
swallow, are more abundant than when the country was unsettled,
owing to the increased number of nesting sites. Supposing for a
moment that the country was swept bare of buildings, where could all
the barn swallows find suitable places to nest? The cliff swallows
might discover enough overhanging cliffs upon which to attach their
mud domiciles; the white-bellied and the martin, as formerly, might
nest in the hollows of trees, but there are not caves enough east of
the Mississippi River to afford nesting places for one-tenth of the
barn swallows. In the far West they would fare better. When the
country was first settled, barn swallows must have been confined to a
few rocky cliffs and caves here and there along the seashore or in
mountains. Now they live wherever man has erected a structure of
anv kind.
As is to be inferred from the movements of these birds, their food,
with some curious exceptions, consists principally of insects caught
in mid-air, For this reason all the species are migratory, except i
the Tropies, for the food supply fails in regions where frosts prevail.
As many insects that usually do not fly, periodically ‘ swarm,’ they
are often captured by swallows at such times in great numbers. Such
is the case with ants and ‘white ants’ (Termitide), which most of
the time are concealed in the earth or in logs, but at certain times
‘swarm? in immense numbers. Many species of beetles that live in
offal and ordinarily are not accessible to birds, in case of failure of
SWALLOWS. Oo"
food, migrate in great numbers, and then are preyed upon by swal-
lows, flycatchers, and other birds. The destructive cotton boll weevil
is more or less active during the late summer and early fall months,
and it has been learned that the swallows, as they pass through the
cotton States on their way to their southern winter quarters, catch
great numbers of them on the wing and so perform an exceedingly
important service. Engraver beetles (Scolytide) have frequently
been found in the stomachs of swallows. These insects live under
bark, and generally are inaccessible to birds, except woodpeckers;
periodically they migrate from the tree where hatched and matured
to search for fresh pastures; at such times they are unprotected and
fall easy prey to any fly-catching bird. Swallows are peculiarly
adapted to capturing small insects in mid-air. While their bills are
weak their mouths are wide, and their long wings enable them to fly
swiftly and turn quickly, so that they sweep back and forth through
a swarm of insects and gather them by hundreds.
Seven species of swallows, with several subspecies, are commonly
found within the limits of the United States. Their food habits
vary but little. All seven species occur in California, and this num-
ber includes one, the violet-green, that does not occur in the East.
Besides the swallows whose food will be discussed in detail in the
following pages, a few stomachs of the tree swallow (Jridoprocne
bicolor), the western martin (Progne subis hesperia), and the bank
swallow (Riparia riparia) have been examined, but the number is
entirely too small to be used as a basis for general conclusions were
it not for the fact that their contents agree in all essential points
with those of the other swallows, of which a greater number were
available for examination. In fact, it may be said of all the members
of the swallow family that they subsist upon practically the same
kind of food, with slight variation from month to month. It may
be laid down as a general rule that the food of all American swal-
lows is derived from the following orders of insects: Coleoptera,
Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, and Diptera, with a few individuals from
one or two other orders, and an occasional spider. So far as present
investigation has shown, 90 percent of their animal food is from the
four orders named above, but the relative proportion of each varies
somewhat with the different species and seasons. With one notable
exception * the swallows take so little vegetable food that it may be
passed by as a negligible quantity, and much even of the httle-eaten
is probably swallowed accidentally. )
After the above statements in relation to the food of the swallows,
it is perhaps unnecessary to dwell upon the great value of these birds
¢The tree swallow of the East (Jridoprocne bicolor) during its southern
migration freely eats the berries of the bay-berry (Jlyricu carolinensis).
28 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
as insect destroyers. They do not consume any product of hus-
bandry, and the worst that can be said of them is that they eat some
useful insects with the harmful ones, though the former are in a
very decided minority. This statement, however, applies to any and
all insect-eating birds. It would be just as reasonable to expect.a
mower or reaper to cut grain and leave the weeds standing as to sup-
pose that from the hordes of insects around us birds will select only
the ones that are injurious to man and leave untouched those that.are
beneficial. Then, too, a superabundance of any species of insects,
even beneficial ones, would be a nuisance. The service which strad-
lows render is to prey upon the whole insect tribe and so to reduce
the flood of insect life to a lower level where it may be more easily
dealt with by man.
CLIFF SWALLOW.
(Petrochelidon lunifrons.)
In the Eastern States the cliff swallow has practically abandoned
its original nesting sites under cliffs, and now nests under the eaves
of houses and other buildings. The writer has counted 80 nests
beneath the eaves of 1 barn. In California the bird has taken up
with the new order of things to some extent, but has not entirely
abandoned its old habits. It is a migrant and remains in the State
for about six months only during the breeding season, which is the
time when the bird does the most good.
The following discussion of the food of the cliff swallow is based
upon the examination of 123 stomachs, representing every month
from April to September, inclusive.
Vegetable food —Vegetable food to the extent of 0.32 of 1 percent!
was found. In most cases this was simply rubbish taken acciden-
tally, though it includes a few small seeds.
.lnimal food —Of the animal matter the largest item is Hymenop-
tera. These insects formed over 39 percent of the total food; most
of them were bees and wasps, and small parasitic species were identi-
fied in a number of stomachs; a few were ants. Unfortunately,
Inany parasitic insects are eaten by birds that take their prey upon
the wing, such as swallows and flycatchers. The fact is to be
deplored, but in most cases the percentage ix not large.» Perhaps the
most interesting insect among Hymenoptera eaten is the common
honey-hee (Cl pix mellifera). Of these, 34 were identified, all con-
tained in LL stomachs, in one of which were 8 individuals. AIL were
drones—that is, males. Nota trace of a worker bee was found. In
two stomachs drones constituted the whole food and in several others
the principal part. Tt is probable that most of them were taken
when the queen made her marriage flight. So far as the writer has
SWALLOWS. 99
been informed, bee keepers do not regard the destruction of drones as
injurious to the swarm. In most cases drones are superabundant
air instead of contributing to the food supply they are a drain upon
itso that the destruction of some of the surplus males is a positive
benefit to the colony.
Hemiptera, or bugs, stand next to Hymenoptera in importance in
the food of the cliff swallow. They form a little less than 27 percent
of the whole diet, and are represented by eight families, namely,
assassin-bugs, leaf-bugs, squash-bug family, stink-bugs, shield-bugs,
tree-hoppers, leaf-hoppers, and jumping plant-lice. All of these,
excepting the assassin-bugs, are injurious to plants, and some of them
are pests at all times. Of these, probably the leaf-hoppers (Jasside)
are the worst. They suck the juices of plants, particularly grasses,
which they infest by millions. They are said to have but few enemies,
of which birds are the most effective. It is probable that they are
captured by swallows when just skimming over the surface of fields,
or are snatched from the tops of grass and weeds. They were found
in 27 stomachs.
Leaf-bugs (Capside) are a very large family of harmful insects,
which feed almost entirely upon plants. Some species of this family
are pests of the worst description. Leaf-bugs were contained in 43
stomachs. The other insects of this order are more or less harmful,
but were not eaten so extensively.
Beetles of all kinds aggregate a little less than 19 percent. Of
these, 2 percent were useful species, such as carabids and coccinellids.
The others belong to 12 different families, most of which are harmful,
some very much so. Among them were a number of aquatic species.
These were probably captured by the swallows when fying just above
the surface of the water. The principal flights of beetles do not
occur during the day, but chiefly in early evening and at night.
Flies are eaten by cliff swallows to the extent of nearly 12 percent
of the food. Most of these are the species commonly known as
gnats, but one stomach contained a large horsefly (Tabanide). The
gnats have a habit of swarming afternoons and evenings, when many
are probably snapped up by swallows.
The remains of dragon-flies, lace-winged flies, ephemerids, and
spiders make up the rest of the food, or a little more than 3 percent.
As spiders do not fly, it may be asked how they were captured by
the swallows. They probably were snatched from their webs or from
the tops of weeds as the birds passed. Swallows pick up substances
even from the ground, as is shown by the vegetable component of
their food, and by other facts to be given presently.
@ Plant-lice and scale-insects were not present, and this may be explained from
the fact that their lives are passed mostly in a wingless condition.
30 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
FOOD OF YOUNG.
Among the stomachs examined were those of 22 nestlings, varying
in age from 2 days to those just ready to leave the nest. They were
taken from May 30 to July 2. inclusive. In order to ascertain if im-
portant differences exist between the food of the adults and that of the
young, the contents of these stomachs were tabulated separately.
Comparison shows little or no difference in the quantity of vegetable
matter eaten by adults and young.
The animal matter in the food of the young is precisely of the
same kind as eaten by adults, but the proportions are rather differ-
ent. Hymenoptera are the largest item in the food of the young
as well as of the parent birds, and amount to 42 percent for
the former against 39 percent for the latter. Diptera stand next in
importance, with 30 percent for the young against 12 percent for the
adults. As these insects are mostly soft-bodied, it is the usual custom
of birds to feed a greater proportion of them to the young. Hemip-
tera amount to a little more than 16 percent of the nestlings’ food,
while the adults eat them to the extent of nearly 27 percent. Beetles
are fed to the young to the amount of about 10 percent, while the
parents eat them to the extent of 19 percent. This again might
naturally be expected, as most beetles are hard and less easily
digested than flies and some other insects, and hence are less suitable
food for young birds.
From the foregoing it is evident that the food of young cliff
swallows does not differ in kind from that of the adults, but is dis-
tributed among the various orders of insects in somewhat different
proportions. Hymenoptera and Diptera constitute nearly three-
fourths of the dict, evidently because they are soft and easily broken
up and digested. Beetles and bugs appear in the stomachs less
frequently. While beetles are not extensively eaten, it is worthy of
note that the variety is considerable, as representatives of no fewer
than 10 species were contained in the stomach of one nestling. One
stomach held a few bits of eggshell, and gravel was identified in
two others. One of these contained 7 good sized gravel stones; the
other, pieces of glass aml gravel. The supposed function of gravel
in the stomachs of birds is to assist in breaking up the food. That
gravel should be given young cliff swallows when not taken by the
adults is remarkable. The feeding of gravel to the young has been
noted in the case of other species of swallows.
WESTERN BARN SWALLOW.
(Hirundo erythroqastra.)
The barn swallow is rapidly learning, not only that the structures
built by man afford excellent nesting sites, but that the presence of
SWALLOWS. 31
man is a sufficient protection against enemies. This species is gen-
erally distributed over the west coast region, but it is not so common
as it is in the East, probably because of the relative scarcity of nest-
ing sites. It is not improbable, however, that the end of the present
half century will see the barn swallow as common throughout the
whole of the region as it is in the East.
Eighty-two stomachs of barn swallows were examined, taken from
April to October, inclusive, though April was represented by only
two stomachs and October by one. While a greater number would
have been desirable, the close resemblance of the food to that of
the eastern birds, as shown by the contents of these stomachs, gives
assurance that the results are reasonably reliable.
Vegetable food.—Practically no vegetable food was found in the
stomachs examined. A. single unknown seed was contained in a stom-
ach taken in September.
Insect food—So far as these 82 stomachs show, the western barn
swallow subsists entirely upon insects, and it may be added that the
same is true of the eastern bird.
The largest item of food is made up of Hemiptera of various
families, amounting to nearly 39 percent of the whole. None of these
insects was present in the two stomachs taken in April, but in every
other month they constitute a large percentage of the stomach con-
tents, and in September, when 38 stomachs were taken, they amount
to 90 percent of the food for that month. Representatives of 8 fami-
lies were identified, but the principal and most important ones are
the leaf-bugs (Capside), which were found in 44 stomachs.
Flies are next in importance, and amount to 32 percent of the food.
Most of them belong to the family of the common house fly (Mus-
cide), though probably there were others too badly mangled to be
identified. No long-legged crane-flies (Tipulidae), usually commonly
eaten by birds, were found.
Hymenoptera constitute 18 percent of the food. Most of them
consist of wasps and wild bees, but a few stomachs contained ants.
One stomach had a drone honey-bee. Several birds had eaten para-
sitic species of Hymenoptera; a separate account was kept of these
so far as possible, but the total amount summed up to only about one-
fourth of 1 percent of the whole food.
Beetles aggregate nearly 10 percent of the whole, and belong to 13
families, with no preference for any. The bird probably snatches
any and all beetles which it comes across. A few of the destructive
engraver beetles (Scolytide) were found in 3 stomachs. Dragon-
flies and several unidentified remains constitute the remainder of the
food and amount to a little more than 1 percent.
32 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
FOOD OF YOUNG,
The stomachs of two broods of nestlings of 4+ each are included in
the foregoing. The contents do not differ from those of adults ex-
cept that they include a small percentage of gravel. Some of them
contained also fragments of eggshell; one had a piece of mother-of-
pearl (nacre), and one a small splinter of bone. It is curious that
these indigestible substances should be so often fed to nestlings when
the parent birds seldom take them.
VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOW,
(Tach yeineta thalassina lepida.)
The violet-green swallow does not occur east of the Great Plains.
Its general habits appear to he almost identical with those of its east-
ern relative, the white-bellied swallow.
The natural nesting site of both species was a hollow in a tree, and
the western bird still adheres to the original habit and nests in the
hollows of oaks and other trees, but the white-belly has to a great ex-
tent followed the example of so many of its relatives, and has taken
to holes in buildings or to boxes put up for avian use.
Tn its food habits the violet-green exhibits no marked peculiarities;
in fact it may be said that the food of the different species of swal-
lows differs in degree rather than in kind. Stomachs of the violet-
green have been collected in every month, except June, from March to
September, inclusive, but only 7 were taken earlier than July. In
that month, however, and the two following months 67 were obtained,
a sufficient number to give a fair idea of the food at this season.
Insect food.—Insects constituted practically the entire contents of
these stomachs. No spiders were found, and the only vegetable mat-
ter was a single seed, no doubt accidental.
As with the barn swallow, the largest item is Hemiptera, or bugs.
These are represented by 10 different families, of which the leaf-
hoppers (Jasside) were the most. numerous, and the leaf-bugs (Cap-
sidw) next. Altogether they amount to 36 percent of the food.
Diptera stand next in importance, and in this respect also the violet-
green resembles the barn swallow. They constitute nearly 29 percent
of the food. Neither Diptera nor Hemiptera, however, are eaten
as freely by the violot-ereen as by the barn swallow, and the defi-
ciency is made up by Hymenoptera.
Hymenoptera amount to 288 percent of the food, and in the
month of July were mostly made up of ants. Six stomachs taken
on the same day and in the same locality were entirely filled with
these insects. One taken at the same place on the following day
was half filled with them, and this, with the exception of 1 percent
CALIFORNIA SHRIKE. 33
contained in one stomach in August, is the whole story of ants in
the food of the violet-green. All of the other hymenopterous food
consists of wasps and wild bees. In explanation of the fact that
this bird eats ants freely for a short time and then eats no more,
it may be stated that much of the time they are not obtainable.
It is only when the insects are on the wing while swarming that the
swallows can catch them, and then, being very numerous, they are
eaten freely.
Beetles collectively amount to something over 11 percent of the
food of the violet-green. Of these nearly 3 percent are Carabide,
with a few coccinellids and carrion beetles, which must be reckoned
as useful insects. The rest, over 8 percent, are of several families,
all of which are more or less harmful. Three stomachs, collected
at the same time in Carmel Valley, are of interest. They contained
respectively 42, 45, and 40 percent of scolytid or engraver-beetles.
This was in the region of the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), and
there is no doubt that these insects prey upon those trees, and
probably were taken when migrating in a swarm to fresh foraging
grounds. A few moths, with some unidentified insects, make up
the remainder of the animal food, a little more than 1 percent.
CALIFORNIA SHRIKE.
(Lanius ludovicianus gambeli.)
The California shrike is common in parts of the Pacific coast
region. At the present time fence posts and telegraph lines are the
vantage points from which shrikes ordinarily scan the ground for
prey, and in certain parts of the valley region it is unusual to glance
along a-line of wire and not see one or more within a short distance.
It-does not seem that trees and shrubs could ever have adequately
supplied the need for lookout stations which is now filled by the poles
and wires,
There seems to be a mysterious sympathy between the shrike and
the little sparrow hawk, or perhaps their relations are inspired by
jealousy. The sparrow hawk also occupies the poles and wires as a
lookout for prey, and whenever a hawk stations himself upon one of
the poles, there, at no great distance, is sure to be a shrike keeping
close watch upon the movements of the larger bird. When the latter
moves the shrike follows, and seems to aim to keep the other continu-
ally in view. Perhaps the shrike sees in the hawk a rival and con-
siders that his preserves are being trespassed upon, though one would
think there was room enough and prey enough for both. No case of
actual conflict between the two has been observed—only this constant
and unremitting surveillance on the part of the shrike.
9379—No. 30-—07——3 sg
34 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
The shrike resembles a bird of prey in form of beak and, to a cer.
tain extent, in food habits. Unlike the true birds of prey, however, its
feet are not provided with talons for seizing prey and holding it
securely while it is being torn into pieces. Whenever the shrike cap-
tures game that must be torn apart it presses it firmly down into a
forked branch where it can readily be dissected.
The habit of the shrike of storing food apparently for future con-
sumption has often been noticed. When food is abundant surplus
captures are hung on thorns, sharp twigs, or, in recent times, the
barbs of wire fences until needed; but as such occasions. seldom arise,
nine-tenths of this stored food is wasted so far as the shrike is
concerned. Various more or less plausible explanations of this
habit have been offered, but the simplest and most natural seems to
be that much of the time the bird hunts simply for the pleasure and
excitement of the chase, and as prey is often captured when hunger
has already been satisfied it is stored for future use. It is the same
instinct and lust for slaughter that prompts man to kill game that
he can not use. The habit seems to be manifested also in a somewhat
different way by the crow and magpie, which store up bits of glass
or bright metal for which they can have no possible use. In the
case of the shrike, however, the habit is useful to man if not to
the bird, for most of its prey consists of noxious creatures, the de-
struction of which is a decided benefit.
The diet of the shrike and that of the sparrow hawk are almost
exactly alike. It is a curious wlustration of two species standing
far apart systematically but by special modification approaching
each other in food habits. The sparrow hawk has all the equipment
of a carnivorous bird, but owing to its diminutive size its attacks
are necessarily confined to the smaller kinds of prey, largely insects.
The shrike, on the other hand, is a member of a group almost
purely insectivorous, but it is so large and strong and has a beak
so modified that in addition to its ordinary diet of insects, it is able
on occasions to capture and tear apart small birds and mammals.
While at present the two birds subsist upon much the same diet it
is evident that their food habits have been modified in different
ways. The natural food of the hawk family as a whole is vertebrate
animals, to which some of its members, including our little sparrow
hawk, have added a large percentage, of insects. The normal food
of the shrike is insects, to which on occasions it adds the smaller
species of vertebrates.
Like the birds of prey and some other birds, the shrike habitually
disgorges the indigestible portions of its food after the nutritive part
has been digested. The bones and hair of mice are rolled into com-
pact pellets in the stomach and finally disgorged. From examination
of these a very good idea of the shrike’s food may be gained.
CALIFORNIA SHRIKE. 35
A shrike of the eastern subspecies was kept in confinement for some
weeks by the Biological Survey and notes made in regard to its food
habits. A thorny bush was placed in the cage, and whenever the
bird was given food in excess of its immediate wants it impaled the
surplus upon a thorn, taking great pains to press it securely down.
On one occasion a dead mouse was placed in the cage; it was at once
seized and forced into the fork of the bush and was then torn piece-
meal and eaten. Note was taken of the time when the last bit was
swallowed, and a close watch kept for further results. In an hour
and a half the bones and hair of the mouse were disgorged in the form
of a neat pellet. Everything digestible had been stripped from the
bones. A May-beetle (Lachnosterna) was eaten and the pellet con-
taining the remains appeared in an hour and twenty minutes. At
another time a ground beetle (Calosoma) and a stink bug (Nezara)
were eaten and their remains appeared in forty minutes. As both
of the insects are nauseous, at least to human smell and taste, it
is possible that they may have been unacceptable to the stomach of
the bird, and so were rejected before digestion was complete. On
another occasion a second Calosoma and a moth were given, and their
remains were regurgitated in an hour and fifteen minutes. These
experiments show how rapid is the process of avian digestion.
In the investigation of the food of the California shrike 124 stom-
achs were examined. They were collected in every month, but the
greater number were taken in the warmer months.
Vegetable food—Animal food of all kinds amounts to 97.5 percent,
or so nearly the whole that it is fair to suppose that the greater
part of the 2.5 percent of vegetable matter present was swallowed
unintentionally—that is, when sticking to something else. All of it
was contained in 9 stomachs. Fruit appeared in 2 stomachs, seeds in
2, and rubbish in 6. Of these probably only the fruit was taken as
food. One stomach was filled with elderberries to the amount of 84
percent of the contents, the other with the seeds of blackberries or
raspberries to the extent of 13 percent. It thus appears that the
shrike sometimes eats fruit.
Animal food—The animal portion of the shrike’s food may be
divided into three parts: Insects, $3 percent ; spiders and a few snails,
etc., 2 percent; vertebrates, 12 percent.
Insect food.—In comparing the food of eastern subspecies of
shrike and the one under discussion, we find that more insects are
eaten by the western one. The figures for the eastern bird are:
Insects, 68 percent; spiders, 4 percent; vertebrates, 28 percent. The
difference is undoubtedly due to climate, the western bird being
able to find insects all the year round, while the eastern one discovers
very few during the winter. Insects probably are always preferred
when obtainable.
36 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Of insects eaten by the shrike, the largest item is Orthoptera—
that is, grasshoppers and crickets—which amount to nearly 48 percent
of the whole food. They are eaten in every month of the year, and
in August and September reach nearly 70 percent. These are the
normal grasshopper months, the ones in which Eastern birds enjoy
their annual grasshopper feast. Ordinary grasshoppers form the
greater part of this item of food, but a good many crickets are eaten,
especially the brown and striped so-called wood crickets. One group
of these is particularly noticeable—a group of large soft-bodied mon-
sters of the genus Stenopelmatus, many of which live under dead
leaves, stones, and rubbish, and do not often voluntarily show them-
selves by the light of day. It seems strange that the shrike, a lover
of open and sunshine, manages to discover these creatures. They are
sometimes called ‘ sand-crickets,’ and perhaps at times come out into
the open, but the writer has never seen one except when dug from
under rubbish. It is not known whether these insects are harmful or
beneficial, so the shrike’s consumption of them has no economic inter-
est. It is quite the contrary, however, with regard to grasshoppers,
for they are harmful in all stages of existence, and the shrike. is
directly beneficial to the farmer to the extent that it destroys them.
Beetles collectively are second in importance in the shrike’s diet.
They amount to 16 percent of the food, but of this about 7 percent
are the useful ground beetles (Carabide) and carrion beetles (Sil-
phide). The rest are mostly harmful. The presence of these last
is a curious point in this connection. These insects are probably use-
ful, and while no great number of them are consumed, it seems rather
strange that they are eaten at all. The surroundings of these beetles
are not pleasant, and they do not generally serve as food for birds
except crows and other garbage hunters. Is it possible that the
shrike finds them on the game which it has hung on twigs or thorns?
They were noted in 8 of the 12+ stomachs, and three species were iden-
tified. Most of the beetles eaten by the shrike are of the larger spe-
cies, but it does not disdain small game, and quite a number of small
leaf-beetles and weevils were among the others.
Ants and wasps amount to something more than 11 percent in the
diet of the shrike. Naturally they are mostly eaten in the warmer
months, and the wasps far outnumber the ants.
Moths and caterpillars are taken to the extent of somewhat more
than 7 percent, and seem to be a regular though small component of
the food. Unlike the wasps, the greater number of these were eaten
in the colder months. One stomach was entirely filled with the re-
mains of 15 moths, a most unusual occurrence, for adult Lepidoptera
do not form a large clement of the food of any bird yet investigated.
Bugs and flies are eaten occasionally. The stomachs taken in Feb-
ruary contained a good percentage of Temiptera, and so did those
CALIFORNIA SHRIKE, 87
collected in July. In one stomach remains of robber-flies (Asilide)
were detected. This isa family of large predaceous flies, some species
of which are said to prey upon honey-bees. These two orders and a
few other odd insects constituted 5 percent of the food.
Spiders and several other kindred creatures form less than 2 per-
cent of the food, but though not eaten in great numbers they appear
in a good many stomachs. In one stomach was found one of those
bristly and uncanny monstrosities of the order of jointed spiders
(Solpugida). It is wonderftl that any bird should attack one, still
more that it should eat it, as it would seem to be about as palatable
as a paper of pins. The lingual ribbon, or tongue, of a snail was
found in one stomach, and bits of what appeared to be the limbs of
small ‘crustaceans in several. They did not amount to a noticeable
percentage.
Vertebrates.—The vertebrate part of the shrike’s food amounts to
a little more than 12 percent, and consists of the remains of small
mammals, birds, and lizards. Mammals were found in 4 stomachs,
birds in 2, and lizards in 12. Neither of the birds could be identified
further than that both were small song birds. Of the mammals,
one was a pocket mouse (Perognathus), one a young field mouse
(Microtus), and one a shrew (Sorex). The fourth mammal could
not be identified, as there was little left except hair. The lizards
were not recognizable either generically or specifically, as the remains
consisted only of bones and scales. From an economic standpoint,
lizards are useful animals, as they subsist on insects. The same is
true of birds, so that in destroying birds and lizards the shrike is
doing harm. Fortunately, it does not eat many birds. The destruc-
tion of the mammals is an unmixed blessing, except, perhaps, in the
case of the shrew (Sorex), which is largely insectivorous. Even if
all the above vertebrates were useful the score against the shrike
would not be a very heavy one and-would not outweigh the
value of its services in destroying grasshoppers. In the writer’s field
experience with the shrike only one attempt to capture a vertebrate
animal was observed. In this case the shrike was seen to plunge
into a thicket of weeds in pursuit of a brood of tiny quail, but a
few seconds later it emerged in a great hurry, closely followed by
the irate cock quail. As a matter of fact, the noxious mammals
eaten both by the eastern and western shrikes far outnumber the
birds, and when to the former are added harmful insects the balance
is very largely on the credit side.
FOOD OF YOUNG.
No nestlings of shrikes were at hand for investigation, but the
stomachs of two young just out of the nest were examined. Both
38 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
were filled: with beetles, ants, wasps, and crickets. In a bird so
thoroughly insectivorous as the shrike it is not probable that the food
of the nestlings differs essentially from that of adults.
As a feature of the landscape and as lending animation to rural
scenes the shrike in California is a pronounced success, and when one
sees him jauntily balancing on a telephone wire it is pleasant to
reflect that in his economic relations he is as admirable as he is from
the esthetic point of view.
VIREOS.
The vireos are a group of rather small tree-haunting birds of plain
colors, modest habits, and sweet but unobtrusive voices. One or the
other of the several species inhabits pretty much everything in the
way of a tree from the monarchs of the forest down to the humblest
underbrush. In thickly settled country vireos inhabit gardens,
orchards, and city parks, and shade trees along the village streets.
Most of them are migrants, and leave the United States in winter,
but a few remain on the Pacific coast throughout the year. Their
food consists largely of insects, though a little fruit and some seeds
are occasionally eaten.
In the insect diet of the vireos there is one element which consti-
tutes a bar sinister on an otherwise brilliant escutcheon. All the
species investigated show a decided taste for ladybirds—that is,
coccinellid beetles. No other genus of birds, nor any single species
(with one possible exception), so far has been known to manifest
such fondness for these useful insects. In California the destruction
of ladybird beetles is perhaps a greater crime than it would be in
almost any other section of the country, for here the bark scales and
plant-lice upon which these beetles feed are very destructive, and
every device for their extermination has been employed, even to
importing several foreign species of these predatory beetles.
Time was when the devastation of the San Jose scale and several
other species of scale insects threatened the fruit industry of Cali-
fornia, and there can be no reasonable doubt that the coccinellid
beetles of both the imported and native species were largely instru-
mental in checking the spread of these pests. It is to be remarked
that these beetles are wonderfully abundant in California, probably
more so than any other family. The writer found them upon corn,
weeds, grass, and bushes, often where apparently there was none
of their natural food. In mitigation of the vireos’ habit of eating
ladybirds all that can be said is that where there is such a super-
abundance of the insects the damage is minimized.
The writer is glad to be able to add that besides the coccinellids,
vireos eat many harmful insects, among which are the black olive
VIREOS. 89
scale. Here, then, is an instance where the bird eats the useful beetle
and also its noxious prey. As there is nothing to indicate that the
bird exercises a choice between them, we must infer that it eats both
whenever it finds them. It eats the beetles and the food (scales)
upon which they feed. From this point of view also it must be
allowed that the harm done by the vireos in eating coccinellids is offset
to some extent.
WESTERN WARBLING VIREO.
(Vireo gilrus sirainsoni.) >
One hundred and ten stomachs of the warbling vireo have been
examined. They were collected during the seven months from April
to October, inclusive, and though hardly as many as could be desired,
they probably furnish a fair idea of the food during that portion of
the year.
Vegetable food.—Insects, with a few spiders, amount to over 97
percent of the diet, leaving less than 3 percent of vegetable matter,
practically all of which was taken in August and September; it
consisted of wild fruit (elderberries), a few seeds of poison oak, a few
other seeds, and some rubbish.
Animal food—Of the animal food the largest item is Lepidoptera ;
that is, caterpillars, moths, and the like. These amount to something
more than 48 percent of the whole. Caterpillars make up the great
bulk of this portion of the food and are a very constant and regular
article of diet. Fewer are eaten in July and August and more at the
beginning and end of the season. In April they amount to over 82
percent of the food of the month. Pupz of codling moths were iden-
tified in four stomachs, and minute fragments probably of the same
were found in several others. A few adult moths also were found,
but the species could not be identified.
Hemiptera are the next most important item of diet, and amount
to 21 percent. They consist of stink-bugs, leaf-bugs, leat-hoppers,
spittle-insects, tree-hoppers, and scales. The last were the black olive
species (Saissetia olew). Coccinellid beetles, or ladybirds, were eaten
to the extent of over 19 percent of the whole. None was in the
stomachs taken in October, while the greater part (over 63 percent)
was contained in those obtained in July. The species belong to the
genera Hippodamia and Coccinella, which are larger than those of
the genus Scymnus selected by the warblers. Other beetles, mostly
harmful species, amount to more than 7 percent.
Hymenoptera, which are an important food of the warblers, are
conspicuous by their absence in the stomach of the warbling vireo. A
little more than 1 percent represents the sum total. They consist ofa
few ants and an occasional wasp.
40 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
A small number of flies, grasshoppers, and dragon-flies make up a
little more than 3 percent of the miscellaneous insects. Spiders were
eaten to somewhat less than 2 percent.
.CASSIN VIREO.
(Vireo solitarius cassini.)
This is another of the tree foragers living in summer in orchards,
canyons, and forests.
Its food consists of the same elements as that of the last-described
species, but in somewhat different proportions. Forty-six stomachs
were examined, taken in every month from April to November. They
afford at least a fair indication of the food for those months.
Vegetable food —Yhe vegetable food, which was only a little more
than 2 percent of the total, was made up of leaf galls, seeds of poison
oak, and a few bits of rubbish. Not a trace of fruit was found.
Animal food—The animal matter amounts to nearly 98 percent of
the whole. Hemiptera are the largest item and amount to nearly 51
percent. The various families represented are those of the squash-
bugs, leaf-bugs, stink-bugs, shield-bugs, leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, the
jumping plant-lice, and scales. The latter are represented as usual by
the black olive scale, which was contained in four stomachs. Caterpil-
lars, with a few moths, are next in importance and form more than
23 percent of the whole food. They were eaten in every month and
are evidently a favorite diet.
Hymenoptera are eaten much more largely by this species than by
the last. They amount to over 7 percent, and are mostly wasps, with
a few ants. This record, however, is likely to be modified by further
investigation. :
Ladybird beetles were eaten to the extent of a little less than 6
percent, which is quite reasonable as compared with the record of the
warbling vireo. It is, however, much greater than that of any bird
outside the present genus, except the pygmy nuthatch, and in the
case of that bird the evidence is too meager to be accepted at its face
value. Other beetles amount to a little more than 3 percent of the
food, and are mostly weevils and small leaf-beetles (Chrysomelide).
A few flies, grasshoppers, and other insects amount to somewhat more
than 2% percent, and these, with + percent of spiders, make up the
remainder of the animal food.
SUMMARY.
In glancing over this record of the Cassin vireo it appears that
bugs are the favorite food, as shown by the numbers consumed; but
caterpillars, though second in quantity, are eaten with greater regu-
VIREOS. 41
larity and appear in the food of every month. The consumption of
ladybirds is very moderate for a vireo, and on the whole the bird
probably does not do much harm in this way. All the other beetles
are harmful, as are most of the other insects which compose the bird’s
food.
HUTTON VIREO.
(Vireo huttoni.)
This species is a resident of most parts of California west of the
great interior valley. In food habits it does not differ remarkably
from the foregoing, but the various elements of its food are in
slightly different proportions.
Vegetable food—Examination of 54 stomachs shows that less than
2 percent is composed of miscellaneous articles of vegetable origin.
One stomach contained a few seeds of elderberries, two contained
those of poison oak, and these with a few galls and some rubbish
make up the whole of this part of the food. It would seem that with
most of the vireos vegetable matter is taken accidentally, or possibly
experimentally to see how it tastes, rather than as an approved article
of diet.
Animal food —Of the 98 percent of animal food the largest item is
Hemiptera, as is the case with many of the vireos, titmice, and gnat-
catchers. These insects amount to 49 percent of the food of the pres-
ent species, and are represented by the following families: Assassin-
bugs, leaf-bugs, stink-bugs, leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, jumping
plant-lice, and bark scales. These last consist, as is so often the case,
of the black scale, which appeared in 8 stomachs. Caterpillars, with
a few moths and cocoons, are next in importance, and constitute over
22 percent of the food. These two items not only make up more than
two-thirds of the diet, but are eaten with great regularity through the
year and seem to be the staples of the bird’s food.
Beetles, collectively, amount to nearly 11 percent. Of these 8 per-
cent are ladybirds, somewhat more than were eaten by the Cassin
vireo, but only half of the amount eaten by the Swainson vireo. The
remaining beetles, less than 3 percent, were largely weevils, among
which a few engravers (Scolytide) could be distinguished. Hyme-
noptera, including both wasps and ants, form about 7 percent of the
food. Among them several parasitic ones were identified, but there
were not enough to be of any great economic interest. A few mis-
cellaneous and unidentified insects amount to nearly 5 percent of the
food. Flies and grasshoppers make up a part of this, but they are
only rarely eaten. Spiders are consumed regularly but sparingly.
They amount to a little more than 2 percent.
42 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
OTHER CALIFORNIA VIREOS.
Several other species and subspecies of vireos occur in California,
but in the general character of their food they agree closely with the
foregoing.,
BEETLES FOUND IN STOMACHS OF VIREOS.
Coccinella t. californica, Gastroidea viridula.
Hippodamiu convergens. Blapstinus spp.
Nevius Spp. Apion cribricollis.
-lyrilis spp. Balaninus spp.
Crepidodera helaines, Copturodes koebelei.
WARBLERS.
(Mniotiltide.)
The warblers, or more properly the wood warblers, to distinguish
them from the warblers of the Old World (Sylviide), are a large
family of rather small and often brightly colored birds. For the
most part they inhabit woods and shrubbery, and while some of them
obtain their food from the ground they seldom wander far from
trees and bushes. The species and subspecies are so widely dis-
tributed that, excepting the deserts, there are no very extensive areas
within the boundaries of the United States that do not have their
complement of these interesting birds. Their food consists largely
of insects, and they subsist upon species which frequent the leaves
and trunks of trees. Wasps and flies (Hymenoptera and Diptera)
form a large portion of their diet, and as these insects are the best
of fliers a considerable portion of them are taken on the wing. The
warblers probably eat more of these elusive insects than does any other
family of birds except the flycatchers (Tyrannide) and the swallows.
Upward of 75 species and subspecies of warblers are known within
the limits of the United States, and a majority of these occur in the
West, though perhaps they are not so abundant individually as in
the Mississippi Valley and Appalachian region.
The genus Dendroica, as the one best exhibiting the characteristic
traits of the group, may be taken as the type of the family. There
are about 30 species and subspecies of the genus in this country, and
the ones whose food is discussed in the following pages occur in
California and on the Pacific coast generally.
In a résumé of the food of the warbler family one is impressed
with the general noxious character of the insects which compose it.
The order of Ilemiptera, commonly called bugs, contains some of the
_ Worst insect. pests that afflict mankind. Moreover, from their small
size and unobtrusive habits they are not eaten by many of the larger
birds and are difficult to exterminate by the devices of man. But
in some of their multiple forms they are preyed upon by the warblers
Bull, 30, Biological Survey, U. S Dept. of Agriculture, PvLaTte Ill
AUDUBON WARBLER ‘DENDROICA AUDUBONI).
WARBLERS. 43
to an average extent of more than ~5 percent of the whole food.
Most. of the other insect food, also, is either of a noxious or neutral
description, and the vegetable portion is so small that it may be dis-
regarded. There is probably no finer tribute to the beneficial char-
acter of these birds than that of Dr. Elliot Coues, who says:
With tireless industry do the Warblers befriend the human race; their uncon-
scious zeal plays due part in the nice adjustment of Nature’s forces, helping to
bring about the balance of vegetable and insect life, Without which agriculture
would be in vain. They visit the orchard when the apple and pear, the peach.
plum, and cherry, are in bloom, seeming to revel carelessly amid the sweet-
scented and delicately-tinted blossoms, but never faltering in their good work.
They peer into the crevices of the bark, scrutinize each leaf, and explore the
very heart of the buds, to detect, drag forth, and destroy these tiny creatures,
singly insignificant, collectively a scourge, which prey upon the hopes of the
fruit-grower and which, if undisturbed, would bring his care to naught. Some
Warblers flit incessantly in the terminal foliage of the tallest trees; others hug
close to the scored trunks and gnarled boughs of the forest kings; some peep
from the thicket, the coppice, the impenetrable mantle of shrubbery that decks
tiny watercourses, playing at hide-and-seek with all comers; others more
huinble still descend to the ground, where they glide with pretty, mincing steps
and affected turning of the head this way and that, their delicate flesh-tinted
feet just stirring the layer of withered leaves with which a past season carpeted
the ground.¢
Following is a list of insects, mostly beetles, identified in the stom-
achs of the warblers examined. .A number of these had been eaten
by nearly every species:
COLEOPTERA.
Coccinella t. californica, Crepidodera heLrines.
Xcummnus pallens. Epitrix parvala,
Scymnus marginicollis, Bruchus paupereulus,
Scymnus sp. nov. Blapstinus pulverulentus,
Microlipus laticeps. NVotorus alameda.
Melanophthalma americana. Anthicus difficilis,
Aphodiusrugifrons. Diodyrhynchus byturoides.
Diachus auratus. Apion respertinum,
Gastroidea cyanea. Onychobaris insidiosa.
Diabrotiea soror. Balaninus sp.
HEMIPTERA.
Saissetia olew. LLspidiotus rapax.
AUDUBON WARBLER.
(Dendroica auduboni,)
(Plate ITI.)
The Audubon warbler is well distributed over the Pacific coast
region, breeding in the mountains and descending in winter to the
valleys and plains of California. It is one of the most abundant
a Birds of the Colorado Valley, p. 201.
44 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
species, and may be considered as typical of the genus, especially in
the matter of food. In the winter season it is a frequenter of
orchards, gardens, and dooryvards where it pursues its business of
insect hunting with a persistent assiduity worthy of all praise. At
this season it is very familiar and easily approached.
In investigating the food of the Audubon warbler 383 stomachs
have been examined. They were taken from July to May inclusive.
Geographically they are distributed from the San Francisco Bay
region southward to San Bernardino, and probably give a fair idea
of the winter diet of this bird in California. The food consisted of
nearly 85 percent of animal matter (insects and spiders) and a little
more than 15 percent of vegetable.
-lnimal food—The largest item of animal food is Hymenoptera—
wasps and ants—which aggregate a little more than 26 percent of the
whole. By far the greater number of these are ants, and as plant-
lice also are eaten to a considerable extent, it is probable that many
of the ants are species that take care of the lice. The other members
of this order are mostly rapid fliers, so the inference is that they were
caught on the wing. The greater number were eaten in the fall and
spring months. In our record May appears as the month of least
consumption—6 percent. August is the month of greatest consump-
tion—61 percent. This record, however, probably is unreliable, as
but one stomach was taken in this month. A few were identified as
belonging to parasitic species.
Flies (Diptera) are represented in the stomachs of the Audubon
warbler to the extent of a little more than 16 percent, or one-sixth of
the whole food. This is one of the largest, if not the very largest,
record of this order of insects eaten by any bird except some of the
swallows. Even the so-called flycatchers do not eat so many flies as
this warbler—in fact, the name ‘ wasp-catchers ’ would be much more
uppropriate for that family. The flies eaten by the Audubon war-
bler must have been caught in mid-air, for flies as a rule do not allow
themselves to be captured without at least attempting to escape.
These insects are so soft-bodied that it is not often possible to deter-
mine more about them than that they are Diptera. Two families
were identified —Muscidw, the family of the common house fly, and
Tipulidae, or crane-flies, the long-legeed mosquito-like creatures other-
wise known as “ daddy-long-legs.” Most of the Diptera, however,
are the smaller species, such ax gnats, which fly in swarms, and being
rather sluggish are more easily captured. They are eaten with
remarkable regularity during the whole season, with no decided de-
crease in the winter months—in fact, more were eaten in January
than in either September or April. March is the month of maximum
consumption, when Diptera constitute over 54 per cent of the whole
food.
WARBLERS. 45
Bugs collectively amount to nearly 20 percent, of which a little
more than + percent are scales and plant-lice. The black olive scale
(Saissetia olew) and another species (Aspidiotus rapax) were found
in 15 stomachs. Plant-lice (Aphididx) were contained in 39 stom-
achs, and from the numbers eaten appear to be favorite food. Sev-
eral stomachs were entirely filled with them. and the stomachs in
which they were found contained an average of 71 percent in each.
The remainder of the hemipterous food, more than 15 percent, is
made up of stink bugs, leaf-hoppers, and tree-hoppers, with a con-
siderable residue of other remains not further identified. Bugs, as a
whole, are eaten rather irregularly, and the greater number are eaten
in the fall months, after which the number consumed gradually
decreases. Caterpillars are eaten rather regularly by the Audubon
warbler, but not in great numbers. They amount to nearly 14 percent
of the food of the season, though this figure includes a few moths and
chrysalids. Some cocoons of tineid moths were in several stomachs.
Beetles of all kinds aggregate something more than 6 percent of
the whole diet. They belong to several families, but the snout-beetles
are most prominent. The others belong to about a dozen families,
and, except a few carrion and ladybird beetles, are injurious. A few
insects other than the above and somie spiders, in all a little less than
2 percent, make up the rest of the animal food.
Vegetable food—The vegetable food of the Audubon warbler con-
sists of fruit, weed seed, and a few miscellaneous substances. As the
bird does not visit the fruit-growing regions during the fruit season,
it is not chargeable with injury to cultivated crops. Almost all the
fruit eaten is wild and of no value, though in the fall it probably
feeds to some extent upon various belated products of the orchard.
The total of fruit for the season is less than 5 percent, of which the
greater amount is eaten in the autumn and early winter, after which
the quantity is unimportant.
The most prominent item of vegetable diet, however, is weed seed.
This is eaten to the extent of a little more than 9 percent of the whole
food, and is taken in almost every month of the bird’s stay, the
greater quantity in winter. Something more than 31 percent was
eaten in December, 22 in January, and 31 in February, after which
it decreases regularly to April. One of the most important seeds
eaten by the Audubon warbler is that of the poison oak (Rhus diver-
siloba (PI. II, fig. 9). In most cases the whole seed is not eaten by
this bird, but only the waxy outer coating, which is easily identified by
certain seaside granules which it contains; hence the bird does not aid
in the diseeiution of these noxious plants. The remaining vegetable
food, amounting to less than 2 percent, consists principally ot rabbit.
46 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
SUMMARY.
It must be evident to the most casual reader that this bird is a
valuable asset in the orchard and garden. The great bulk of its
food, both animal and vegetable, is composed of elements the elimina-
tion of which from the farm is a benefit. As has been elsewhere
pointed out, the destruction of insects during winter or in early
spring is more useful than in the height of the midsummer abun-
dance, for in spring the progenitors of the season’s broods are
destroyed and with them the possibility of thousands of progeny.
MYRTLE WARBLER.
(Dendroica corondta.)
This is another winter visitant in California. Only 10 stomachs
of this species have been examined, but the contents show the pre-
dominant. food characteristic of the genus. There is one point, how-
ever, which is worthy of passing note. One of these stomachs was
completely filled with greedy scales (Aspidiotus rapax), with the
exception of a small fragment of a beetle; another contained remains
of the black olive scale, and still another some scales not identified.
TOWNSEND WARBLER.
(Dendroica townsendiy
The Townsend warbler, like the Audubon, summers in California
only in the mountains. During the migration and in winter it visits
the valleys. Like other members of the family it is an insect eater
almost exclusively, and does not eat fruit or other farm products.
Thirty-one stomachs were taken in the four months from October to
January inclusive, in the region from Pacific Grove to Watsonville.
As our stomach examinations disclose the fact that the food of this
warbler agrees closely with that of cthers of the same group, a fair
idea of the diet for the above months is obtained.
luimal food—The animal food consists of insects and a few
spiders, and amounts to over 95 percent of the food during the time
specified. Of this, bugs make up 42 percent, mostly stink-bugs
(Pentatomida:) and a few leaf-hoppers and scales. The former
appear to be a favorite food. Although these insects are eaten with
considerable regularity by most of the warblers of this group, they
are not usually taken in great numbers, but the ‘Townsend warbler
eats many, and several stomachs were entirely filled with them.
Hymenoptera, consisting of both wasps and ants, are eaten to the
extent of 25 percent of the food. Most of them are winged species.
Perhaps the most striking point in the food of this bird is the great
WARBLERS. 47
number of weevils or snout-beetles represented. They amount to over
20 percent of the food, while all other beetles form less than 1 percent.
The greater number of these insects were of the species Diodyrhyn-
chus byturoides, a weevil which destroys the staminate blossoms of
coniferous trees. Five stomachs contained, respectively, 68, 65, 53,
50, and 35 of these beetles, or 271 in all. Moreover, each of these
stomachs contained fragments which could not be satisfactorily iden-
tified; probably these were the same species, so that the total con-
tained in the 5 stomachs is probably nearer 300. Several other
stomachs contained fewer of these weevils. Representatives also of
another family of snout-beetles very: destructive to timber were pres-
ent ina few stomachs. These were the engravers (Scolytide), which
lay their eggs beneath the bark of trees, where they hatch, and the
larve bore in every direction. Caterpillars and a few miscellaneous
insects and some spiders make up the remainder of the animal food.
Vegetable food—The vegetable matter, which amounts to less than
5 percent of the whole, consists of a few seeds and leaf galls. As the
galls in most. cases contained small larve it is a question if they
should not be reckoned as animal food.
SUM MARY.
While this can be considered as only a preliminary study of the
food of the Townsend warbler, the thoughtful reader can not fail to
be impressed by the fact that this bird exhibits some very valuable
economic traits, especially in its relation to the forest. The stomachs
containing the pine-eating weevils were from birds killed in the pine
forests of Pacific Grove, near Monterey, as also were those containing
the engmver beetles. Of the 30 stomachs examined, 19 held the
remains of weevils, from which it would appear that these insects
are preferred as an article of food. As this group of beetles con-
tains some of the worst pests of the forest and orchard, any bird that
eats them so freely must be considered as performing a most welcome
service.
SUMMER WARBLER.
(Dendroica «stirva subspp.)
The summer warbler, yellow warbler, or summer yellowbird, as it
is variously called, is represented in the West by two subspecies, one
of which visits California only as a migrant. The other, which does
not differ essentially from the eastern form, is a rather common sum-
mer resident throughout the valley and foothill regions. In the Fast
this bird is fairly domestic in its habits, and may often be seen about
gardens and orchards, or in rose bushes nearer the house. In Cali-
fornia it is not quite so familiar, but is becoming so and probably will
48 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
soon acquire the habits of its eastern relative. From the material at
hand this warbler appears to be even more exclusively insectivorous
than the species last discussed. This may arise from the fact that
it stays in the fruit districts during summer, when insects are most
numerous; but it must be remembered that this is also the season
when fruit and vegetable food generally are most abundant.
William Prond, of Chico, Butte County, thus recounts the efficient
service of this and other warblers:
On Rancho Chico is a fine coNection of roses, all of which are more or less
liable to attacks from ulphis rosea, but are perfectly free from other insects.
I attribute this to the protection of sinall birds, among the most active of which
are Dendroica wstiva, * * * Helminthophila celata, Regulus calendula.
The following statements in regard to the food of the summer
warbler are based on the examination of 98 stomachs, ‘all collected
from April to October, inclusive.
Animal food—The animal food, composed entirely of insects and
a few spiders, amounts to over 97 percent. The largest item is
Hymenoptera, which amounts to over 30 percent, about half of which
are ants. The remainder are small bees and wasps, some of which
are probably parasitic species, though none were positively identi-
fied. The insects of this order must be favorite food, as they are
eaten with remarkable regularity and constitute an important per-
centage of the diet in every month represented. Caterpillars, with a
few moths, aggregate over 18 percent. The greater number are
eaten in spring and early summer, but in fall they give place to other
insects.
Beetles form nearly 16 percent of the diet, and embrace about a
dozen families, of which the only useful one is that of the ladybirds
(Coccinellide), which are eaten to a small extent. The great bulk
of the beetle food consists of small leaf-beetles (Chrysomelide), with
some weevils, and several others. One stomach contained the remains
of 52 specimens of Votowus alameda, a small beetle living on trees.
Bugs (Hemiptera) constitute over 19 percent of the food, and are
eaten regularly every month. Most of them consist of leaf-hoppers
(Jasside) and other active forms, but the black olive seale appeared
in a number of stomachs. Plant-lice were not positively identified,
but some stomachs contained a pasty mass, which was probably made
up of these insects in an advanced stage of digestion.
Flies seem to be acceptable to the simmer warbler; they are eaten
to the extent of nearly 9 percent. Some of them are of the family
of the house fly, others are long-legeed tipulids, but the greater num-
ber were the smaller species commonly known as gnats. A few
small soft-bodied Orthoptera (tree-crickets), a dragon-fly, and a few
remains not identified, in all about 5 percent, made up the rest of
the animal food.
WARBLEBRS. 49
Vegetable food—The vegetable portion is only about 23 percent.
Nearly all of this was fruit pulp contained in a single stomach.
This, with one or two seeds and a few accidental bits of rubbish,
makes up the whole vegetable contingent, which, therefore, may be dis-
missed without further comment.
FOOD OF NESTLINGS.
Some idea of the amount of insect food eaten by warblers may be
obtained by watching the feeding of their young by the parent birds.
A nest of the summer warbler containing two young, about a week
old when discovered, was watched for six hours distributed over three
days. The nest was situated in a prune tree in an orchard, and it is
practically certain that all the food for this family was obtained in
the orchard. The results of the observation appear in the following
table:
Forenoon. Afternoon.
Date. | fetes toed
Hour of obser- eas Hour of obser- Number
| vation. ings. vation. ings.
t
TUIMO ID one ahi ciesnceieieeieiall sicreeiecietate 3. 26-4. 26 21
June 14 8. 21- 9.21 OL ossescuagiansacenl atest ee
June 14 10, 34-11.34 32 4. 36-5. 36 31
June 15 8.00- 9.00 36 1,11-2.11 30
In six hours 181 feedings were observed, an average of 304 per
hour. As there were only two young, it follows that each nestling
was fed 15 times per hour, or for a day of fourteen hours 210 times.
Both parent birds took part in feeding the young, but it was noted
that the female visited the nest most frequently.
SUM MARY.
From the above facts it is evident that the presence of a few
warbler nests in an orchard goes far to safeguard the trees from
attacks of insect enemies. The inference is plain that the presence
of insectivorous birds should be encouraged by the orchardist by
every means in his power. The summer warbler is, if possible, even
more completely beneficial in its food habits than the Audubon
warbler. Its animal food in relation to man is almost entirely nox-
ious or neutral, and it eats so little vegetable food that its character 1 is
of but Slight consequence. :
WESTERN YELLOWTHROAT.
(Geothlypis trichas subspp.)
In California the yellowthroat is an inhabitant of marshes and low,
bushy places among tules or willows. While it is an insect eater of
9879—No. 30—-07—4.
50 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
the highest order, it does not so directly affect the interests of horti-
culture as it would if it frequented orchards and gardens. It may be
said, however, that as the swamps and thickets in which it lives are
the recruiting grounds for many orchard pests, the bird that destroys
them in their native haunts is by no means without economic value.
In a somewhat restricted investigation of the food of this bird 114
stomachs, taken in every month except January, were examined.
Vegetable food —A few seeds and bits of rubbish is the sum total of
the vegetable food, and it is probable that these were taken accident-
ally. Some of the ants of California store up seeds, and when snap-
ping up ants the yellowthroat probably takes the seeds along with
them.
elnimal matter—The animal matter amounted to 99.8 percent of
the total food. The largest item is Hymenoptera, amounting to 35
percent, of which about half is ants and the remainder wild bees,
wasps, ete.
Hemiptera amount to 28 percent, and are made up of leaf-bugs,
leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, plant-lice, scales, and probably some others
not identifiable. The black olive scale was found in a few stomachs
and plant-lice in one, but the other families were a pretty constant
component of the food in every month.
Beetles were eaten to the extent of nearly 15 percent, and are mostly
harmful species, the exception being a few coccinellids of the genus
Seymnus, which, however, do not amount to 1 percent of the whole.
Weevils and others of the more common families make up the rest of
this portion of the diet. The three orders of insects mentioned above
form the great bulk of the food of the vellowthroat, and are regularly
eaten throughout the vear.
Caterpillars and moths comprise 5 percent, but, so far as. the
stomachs at hand show, are eaten very irregularly and do not appear
on the preferred list. The same may be said of Diptera, though they
umount to 12 percent, but in several months none were eaten. Grass-
hoppers were found in only four stomachs, but one of these contained
nothing else. Spiders are taken to the extent of nearly | percent, but
in some months none were*found and only a trace in others.
SUMMARY.
From the above rather brief survey of the food of the yellowthroat
it is evident that the horticulturist has nothing to fear from this
bird should it change its habitat and become an inhabitant of
orchards and vineyards. It is practically wholly insectivorous, and
the msects it eats are either harmful or of little economic value. It
eats no fruit or grain, vor, so far as known, any other useful product.
Like other members of the family, its life is passed in unceasing
search for insects,
WARBLERS. 51
ORANGE-CROWNED WARBLER.
(Helminthophila eclata subspp. )
The genus Helminthophila is next to Dendroica in the number of
species and subspecies it contains, but still falls far below it. Several
species occur in California, but the one under consideration is prob-
ably the most important. Only 65 stomachs were available for exami-
nation, but they confirm the evidence already obtained from other
species. :
Vegetable food.—Less than 9 percent of the food is vegetable mat-
ter, and is made up of 3 percent of fruit and rather more than 5 per-
cent of various substances, such as leaf galls, seeds, and rubbish.
Fruit was found in only a few stomachs, but the percentage in each
was considerable ; figs were the only variety identified.
Animal food—The animal matter in these stomachs amounts to 91
percent of the food. Hemiptera are the largest item and amount to
over 25 percent, mostly leaf-bugs, leaf-hoppers, plant-lice, and scales..
Plant-lice were found in only one stomach and scales in 5, of which 3
contained the black olive species. Beetles amount to about 19 percent
of the food, and with the exception of a few Coccinellide are of
harmful families, among which are a number of weevils.
Beetles and bugs are the two orders of insects that are not only
eaten to the greatest extent but are taken with great regularity, and
form a respectable percentage of the food in every month.
Caterpillars are eaten rather irregularly, though they aggregate 24
percent for the year. Stomachs collected in several months contained
none, while in others they amounted to more than half the food.
Probably the examination of a greater number of stomachs would
show more regularity in the consumption of these insects.
Hymenoptera amount nearly to 15 percent, and are mostly small
wasps, though some ants are eaten. This is the smallest percentage
for this order that has yet been found in the food of any warbler.
Flies are represented hy less than 1 percent, which is mnusnally
-inall, Perhaps this warbler lacks the slall to ecateh such agile
insects. Seven percent of spiders were found in the stcmachs. the
largest wercentae: of these creatures for any warbler. This again
‘ndicates that the orange-crown is most successful in hunting slug-
gish game, such as beetles, bugs, and spiders.
GOLDEN PILEQLATED WARBLER.
(Wilsonia Pusille subspp.)
The golden pileolated warbler is another of the small birds that
summer here and there on the Pacific coast, mostly in willows and
a
52 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
other shrubbery, but not rarely in the orchard. During the migra-
tion it is common and widespread.
Fifty-two stomachs of this bird have been examined, and though
the evidence is somewhat fragmentary, it suffices to reveal the general
character of the food.
animal food—Animal matter amounts to over 93 percent, vege-
table to less than 7 percent. Of the former, the larger item is Hemip-
tera, which aggregates over 35 percent. The black olive scale was
found in four stomachs, but leaf-hoppers make up the bulk of this
portion of the food. Hymenoptera stand next in importance, with 31
percent, made up of both wasps and ants.
Flies are eaten to the extent of 11 percent, and in connection with
the Hymenoptera proves what observation of its habits indicate, that
this bird gets much of its food when on the wing. .A good many of
the insects were the tipulids, or crane-flies.
Beetles of half a dozen different families were eaten to the extent
of about 9 percent. They were mostly leaf-beetles (Chrysomelide),
with a few weevils and one or two others. No coccinellids were
found.
Somewhat less than 5 percent of the food consists of caterpillars.
They do not appear to be favorite food, for they are eaten very
irregularly. Spiders also are taken only sparingly, and form but
little more than 1 percent of the total food.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food, less than 7 percent of the
total, is made up almost entirely of fruit pulp, and was eaten in the
months of September and October.
SUMMARY.
The foregoing hasty review of the food of the golden pileolated
warbler shows that its food habits are practically the same as those
of other members of the family. The food is largely composed of
insects, and its two most prominent elements are Hymenoptera and
Hemiptera, which are eaten extensively and very regularly through
the year. The other components of the diet apparently are taken
with less regularity,
WESTERN MOCKING BIRD.
CWimus | oiygiotios leu opterus.)
The mocking bird has always been held in such high esteem as a
singer that perhaps it would be useless to attempt to add to the
bird’s repute by showing that its food habits are of a high order of
economle interest. Moreover, the title of the mocking bird to be
ranked as an economic benefactor is not quite clear, for, though it
WESTERN MOCKING BIRD. 53
does considerable good by the destruction of harmful insects, it eats
much fruit, and from the Southern States, particularly Texas and
Florida, where fruit raising is an important industry, have come
bitter complaints against it. In Florida the bird is said to attack
grapes and oranges, and in Texas it is asserted that figs are to be
added to its food list.
In California the mocking bird is a common resident only in the
southern half of the State and is very common only in restricted
portions. No serious complaints of the bird’s depredations in this
State have yet been made, but this perhaps is due to the fact that
mocking birds are rare in sections where cherries and the smaller
deciduous fruits are grown. Where mockers are most abundant,
citrus fruits are the principal crop and the birds do not appear to
molest them.
While a number of stomachs of this bird have been examined, they
are too few and too unequally distributed over the region under
investigation to justify final conclusions with regard to the animal
food; still they furnish information of value. It so happens that
33 stomachs were taken between July 18 and August 18, and another
a few days later. All but one of these stomachs were from the region
about Los Angeles, and this one was collected at Fresno. The av-
erage, therefore, is a little more than one stomach a day for this
period, and gives a fair idea of the food for the time and locality.
The first analysis gives 23 percent of animal matter and 77 percent
of vegetable. There was no stomach which did not contain some
vegetable food, while 10 had no animal matter.
Animal food—Beetles of several families formed a little less than
1 percent. Hymenoptera, largely ants, were eaten to the extent of
somewhat more than 10 percent. Grasshoppers constituted the larg-
est item of animal food, and. amounted to 11 percent of the whole.
A few caterpillars and spiders made up the other 1 percent of the
animal food.
Vegetable food—Of the 77 percent of vegetable food nearly 74
percent was diagnosed as fruit. Some of this, of course, was wild,
but blackberries or raspberries, grapes, and figs were found in many
stomachs. Many of the birds were taken in orchards and gardens,
and some were shot in the very act of pilfering blackberries. Others
were taken in a wild arroyo away from cultivation. The only species
of wild fruits that were identified were elderberries, which were
found in a few stomachs. The other vegetable matter was made up
of several elements. Of these, the seeds of poison oak (PI. IT, fig. 9)
are perhaps the most conspicuous, and one stomach was entirely filled
with them. A few weed seeds and some rubbish completed the vege-
table part of the food.
54 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Besides the 34 stomachs already discussed, 19 others were examined,
but as they represent nine months of the year they are too few to
afford a criterion of the usual food for those months; but they give
a hint at least of what is eaten at other times than midsummer.
Two stomachs were taken in March, one of which was filled with ani-
mal food, and the other also, except 1 percent of vegetable rubbish.
The animal portion consisted of harmful insects, except one lizard.
This seems peculiar food for a mocking bird, and is to be considered
beneficial. The one stomach taken in May was filled with seeds of
poison oak. A stomach collected in June contained & percent of
caterpillars; small fruit, probably wild, constituted the rest of the
contents. Six stomachs taken in August contained 22 percent of
animal matter to 78 of vegetable. The animal food consisted of
heetles, ants, and grasshoppers. The vegetable portion was made up
of some wild grapelike fruit and a little fig pulp with some elder-
berries. Of four stomachs taken in September, one was filled with
insects and spiders. The three others contained a few wasps, with
fruit and other vegetable matter. The only insect to be considered
useful was one carabid beetle. Of the three stomachs collected in
October, one was filled with the seeds and pulp of grapes and figs;
one contained 27 percent of grasshoppers and 73 percent of some wild
berry not positively identified, while the third contained a few grass-
hopper remains and 92 percent of wild seed. The stomach collected
in December was filled with seeds and pulp of figs and grapes. One
stomach was taken in January which contained 70 percent of harmful
insects and 80 percent of seeds of poison oak,
FOOD OF YOUNG.
Among these stomachs was one of a nestling about a week old. It
contained 92 percent of grasshoppers and crickets and 8 percent of
some wild fruit. So far as it goes, this indicates that mockers follow
the general rule and feed their young largely on animal food of the
softer kind—that is, grasshoppers instead of beetles.
SUMMARY,
Reviewing the contents of the 52 stomachs we find 29 percent of
animal matter and 71 of vegetable. Of the animal food the largest
item is [Lymenoptera, 10 percent, and then in order, Orthoptera 7
percent, Coleoptera 6 percent, Lepidoptera 5 percent, miscellaneous 1
percent. The vegetable food consists of 50 percent of fruit and 21
percent of seeds and other items. These results prove that the mock-
ing bird eats insects to a considerable extent, but they: are not con-
CALIFORNIA. THRASHER. 55
clusive as to the elements of its preferred diet. It is evident that it
is fond of fruit, and where abundant the bird may become a menace
to the orchard and vineyard.
CALIFORNIA THRASHER.
(Torostoma redivira.)
Thrashers are eminently birds of the underbrush. While they
occasionally alight on trees at some height from the ground, they
are more frequently seen under bushes or skulking out of sight in
some almost impenetrable thicket of briars. When, however, the
thrasher wakes in the morning and feels his soul overflowing with
song, he perches on the topmost twig of a tree and lets the world
know that he is there and believes that life is worth living.
The food of the thrasher is obtained on or near the ground. The
long curved bill of the California species is probably used much as
many birds use their claws to dig among dead leaves and other rub-
bish for insects. The bird is not fastidious in its diet, and examina-
tion of the stomachs reveals a good many bits of dead leaves, rotten
wood, plant stems, which are carelessly taken along with more
nutritious morsels.
An examination of 82 stomachs of this species shows that vegetable
food exceeds the animal in the proportion of 59 to 41. In the eastern
species (7. rufum) the ratio is 36 to 64. This result is rather sur-
prising, for, as a general rule, California birds eat a larger propor-
tion of animal food than do the most nearly related eastern species.
Animal food—As the thrasher is eminently a ground forager it
would naturally be expected to find and eat many ground-living bee-
tles. Of these the Carabide are the most important, owing to their
predaceous habits; so a separate account of this family was kept.
The result shows that they enter the food of the thrasher to the extent
only of 3.8 percent, while all other beetles amount to nearly 6 percent.
Of these, the darkling beetles (Tenebrionide) are the most numerous,
and the May beetles (Scarabeide) next. But very few weevils or other
species that live on trees or foliage were found. Of all the insects,
Hymenoptera are the most abundant, as they are also the most con-
stant element of the thrasher’s food. About half of these are ants,
the rest wasps and bees. Ants naturally are the insects most often
found by this bird, as many species live on the ground and among
rubbish and rotten wood. The occurrence in the food of wasps and
bees, on the contrary, is somewhat of a surprise, as they are mostly
sun-loving insects more often found on flowers or the leaves of trees
than under bushes or thickets where the thrasher delights to forage.
Together they make up something more than 12 percent of the food
56 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
of the year. Two specimens of worker honey-bees (Apis mellifera)
were found in one stomach. None of the other Hymenoptera was of
specially useful species.
Caterpillars, cocoons, and moths amount to a little more than 8 per-
cent of the food, and the greater number were eaten during the win-
ter months. It is probable that they were hibernating and were
raked out from under dead leaves or other rubbish. A few bugs,
flies, grasshoppers, and spiders make up the rest of the animal food—
about 6 percent. Spiders and myriapods amount to a little more than
6 percent.
Vegetable food—The vegetable food may be divided into three
parts: Fruit, poison-oak seeds, and miscellaneous vegetable matter.
Fruit represents nearly 18 percent, but it probably is not of much
value. Several stomachs contained pulp that could not be identified
with certainty, and might have been that of some cultivated variety.
Seeds of Rubus fruits (blackberries or raspberries) were found in 12
stomachs out of the 82. These, however, are as likely to have been
wild as cultivated. Elderberry seeds were discovered in 10 stomachs,
Cascara, or coffee berries (Rhamnus californicus),in 5,and manzan-
ita berries in 1. The seed of poison oak (Rhus diversiloba, Pl. II,
fig. 9), and a few of the nonpoisonous species of Rhus were eaten to
the extent of 14 percent of the food. They were not found in many
stomachs, but appear to be eaten in considerable quantities when
eaten at all. The thrasher must be added to the list of birds that
assist in the dissemination of the seeds of this noxious plant.
The miscellaneous part of the vegetable food amounts to over 26
percent, and is made up of mast, weed seed, galls, and rubbish. The
mast was not further identifiable. Most of the seeds were so broken
and ground up that only a few species were identified. Two stom-
achs contained remains of grain—wheat in one and corn in the other.
Leaf galls were found in several stomachs, and rubbish in quite a
number, though here again it is difficult to draw the line between food
proper and stuff that is accidentally picked up with it.
SUMMARY,
Although the thrashers eat some fruit, most of it is wild and of no
value. Moreover, the bird's habits are such as to preclude the like-
lihood that it will ever become a resident of orchards. Grain evi-
dently is not a favorite food, and if it were it is doubtful if the bird
would leave its chosen haunts for the sake of procuring it. It is not
probable that the California thrasher will ever become of special
economic interest. unless under very exceptional circumstances. In
the meantime it performs its part in the great work of reducing the
vast. numbers of insects.
WRENS. 57
WRENS.
Since the time to which history runneth not the wren family, rep-
resented by one or other of its members, has attached itself to the
abodes of man. Wherever man settles some member of this group is
ready to greet him, to take advantage of his improvements, and to
aid in the fight against his insect enemies. The common wren of
Europe and the house wren of eastern North America habitually
choose crannies in buildings or fences for nesting places, or if hollow
trees are selected they usually are near human dwellings, preferably
fruit trees in orchards or gardens. When civilization was pushed to
the Pacific coast, wrens were there ready to welcome the new order of
things. In food habits the wrens proper (Troglodytine) are largely
insectivorous. While occasionally they eat a seed or a bit of fruit,
the quantity taken by most species during the year is so small in
comparison to the animal portion as to be insignificant. The insects
eaten by the wrens are mostly noxious species, such as infest the
foliage and branches of trees and shrubs, and the domestic habits of
the wrens enable them to attack these pests in the very places where
they are most harmful—that is, in the garden and orchard. The
predaceous beetles (Carabide), which live mostly on the ground, are
protected from the wrens by this very habit, as the latter seldom for-
ages in such places. Moreover, the species most valuable to man are
rather large prey for such small birds.
BEWICK WREN.
(Thryomanes bewicki subspp. )
The Bewick wren is one of the species which to a considerable
extent occupies in California the place of the house wren in the East-
ern States. The nesting habits of the two are practically identical,
and the economic value of the former is just as great as that of the
latter.
Investigation of this bird’s food is based upon the examination of
146 stomachs taken in every month of the year. Of its diet for the
year a little more than 97 percent consists of insects and less than 3
percent of vegetable matter.
Vegetable food—The largest quantity of vegetable matter was
eaten in December and January and formed about 12 percent of the
food in each of these months. In three months—March, June, and
September—no vegetable food was found in the stomachs. It is
hardly probable, however, that such would always be the case in these
months. What was supposed to be pulp of fruit was found in one
stomach. This was the only vegetable substance noted that could pos-
sibly be useful to man. Six stomachs contained seeds more or less
broken, of which only one was identified, a single seed of turkey
58 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
mullen (Hremocarpus setiqerus). In one stomach was a small gall,
and in six were various substances, such as bits of dead leaves, plant
stems, and rotten wood, which may properly be denominated rubbish.
Animal food—Of the animal food various families of bugs
(Hemiptera) make up the largest percentage. One of the most
interesting items is the black olive scale, which was found in a num-
ber of stomachs but does not appear to be eaten extensively. The
great bulk of the hemipterous food was made up of leaf-bugs, stink-
bugs, shield-bugs, leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, and jumping plant-lice,
though there were representatives of other families. The aggregate
of the Hemiptera eaten is about 31 percent of the total food. It is
distributed with great regularity through the year and varies less
from month to month than any other food. With the exception of
the olive seale no specially harmful species was identified, but bugs
belonging to the same family as the notorious chinch bug were found.
As a yast majority of the members of this order are injurious to
vegetation their destruction by birds must be considered beneficial.
Beetles collectively amount to over 21 percent of the food. They
may be placed in three groups—ladybirds, weevils, and other beetles.
Ladybirds are probably the most useful insects of the whole order
of Coleoptera, so that their destruction by birds is to be deplored.
Bewick’s wren eats them to the extent of a little more than 3 percent
of the whole food. This is not a large percentage, though greater
than could be wished. On the other hand, the bird eats weevils, or
snout-beetles, to the extent of nearly 10 percent of its food. As all
the members of this group (Rhynchophora) are practically harmful,
and some of them the worst pests of the orchard and forest, it must
be allowed that we are paid for our ladybirds at a fairly good
price. A number of stomachs contained beetles of this group belong-
ing to the family of engravers (Scolytide), which live under the
bark of trees and greatly damage the timber. The stomachs of two
wrens taken in Pacific Grove in the month of January contained
85 and 80 percent of these beetles.
The owners of the Pacific Grove pine forests have engaged the
services of an expert to investigate the damage being done to the pines
hy scolytids and other insects, and, if possible, to devise a remedy.
Is it not evident that the bird under consideration is one of Nature’s
remedies for this evil? The trouble is that there are not enough
birds to wage effective war against the insects. In many cases, per-
haps in this one, man himself is partly to blame for present condi-
tions. The birds are destroyed—destruction of the forest follows.
By furnishing proper facilities for breeding in the shape of bird
boxes the numbers of this wren in the State of California may be
greatly increased and the forest trees correspondingly protected from
insects,
WRENS. 59
Other beetles, mostly leaf-beetles (Chrysomelide) were eaten to
the extent of a little more than S$ percent. While nearly all of the
leaf-beetles are theoretically harmful none of those identified in the
food are especially destructive to crops.
Hymenoptera, including both ants and wasps, aggregate a little
more than 17 percent of the wren’s diet. They are a fairly constant
constituent of the food and do not appear to vary much according to
season. The greater number was found in March, but as only two
stomachs were collected in this month the record is not conclusive.
Ants form about 7 percent of the food. The economic relations of
these insects have been discussed elsewhere. Wasps make up the rest
of the item, about 10 percent, and have no especial economic signifi-
cance. Caterpillars and a few moths and some cocoons constitute a
little less than 12 percent of the wren’s food. Contrary to what
might be expected, not all these are taken in summer. The 14
stomachs obtained in February contained caterpillars to the amount
of over 13 percent of their contents. They were probably found
hibernating in crevices of bark. A few moths were eaten, but, as
usual, they were only a small item of the food. Small cocoons’ of
tineid moths were found in a number of stomachs.
Grasshoppers amount to 4 percent of the wren’s diet. Most of
them are eaten during the summer and fall, though some appeared in
stomachs taken in January. While these insects are a favorite food
for many birds they are probably rather large and too terrestrial in’
habits to be eaten in great numbers by wrens. Other insects, mostly
flies and a few remains which could not be identified, make up about
6 percent of the stomachs’ contents. Fles (Diptera) are eaten very
irregularly and appear not to be relished. Spiders are taken to the
extent of somewhat more than 5 percent of the total food. As spiders
live about trees, bushes, fences, rocks, and outbuildings it is not sur-
prising that they are captured by wrens, but the rule seems to be that
while all insectivorous birds eat spiders to some extent no species eats
many.
List of insects found in stomachs of Bewick wren:
COLEOPTERA.
Cercyon fulvipenne. Diabrotica soror.
Hippodamia convergens. Cryptocephalus castancus.
Cocinella t. californica. Gastroidea sp.
Scymnus marginicollis. Bruchus seminulion.
Aphodius rugifrons. Blapstinus dilatatus.
Microrhopala montana. Notorus alamede.
Diachus auratus. Ceutorhynchus nodipennis.
Crepidodera helrines. Pelenomus cavifrons.
UMpitrir parvula. Apion sp.
E-rena conspersa.
60 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
HEMIPTERA.
Sinea diadema. Naissetia oler,.
Remains of insects belonging to the following families were found,
but not further identified :
COLEOPTERA,
Carabidee. Bruchide.
Hydrophilidie. Tenebrionide.
Staphylinidre. Anthicidee.
Coccinellidre. Curculionidie.
Elateridie. Scoly tide.
Scarabeidi. Other Rhynchophora.
Chrysomelide.
DIPTERA.
Muscidae. Tipulide.
HEMIPTERA.
Emesidee, Corimelenide.
Reduviide. Scutellerids.
Aradide. Jasside.
Capside. Membracide.
Lygeide. Psyllidee.
Pentatomide. Coccide.
WESTERN HOUSE WREN.
(Troglodytes acdon subspp. )
The western house wren, like its eastern relative, is a common
resident about outbuildings and other structures that offer suitable
nesting sites and good foraging ground. In its general appearance
and habits it is so like the Bewick wren that the casual observer is
likely to confuse the two. Like other members of the family, it is
largely insectivorous and rarely eats vegetable food.
Only 36 stomachs of this species from California are available for
examination, but the character of the food agrees so nearly with that
of the eastern form that the general results obtained from the study
of that subspecies may be applied to the western bird.
Animal food.—In the 36 stomachs examined animal matter, con-
sisting entirely of insects and spiders, formed 97.5 percent, and vege-
table food 2.5 percent. Beetles, as a whole, amount to about 20 per-
cent; caterpillars, aggregating 24 percent, are taken in ‘the earlier
months of the year; and Hemiptera, amounting to 33 percent, are
eaten chiefly in the last of the season. Grasshoppers amount to about
5 percent, and different insects, mostly ants and other Hymenoptera,
aggregate 15 per cent.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable matter consists of rubbish and one
grass seed, probably all of it swallowed accidentally.
WRENS. 61
Among the 36 stomachs, of which the record has just been given,
were 18 nestlings, some being about a week old, others about ready
to leave the nest. The results of the examination of these were tabu-
lated by themselves in order to determine the differences, if any,
between the food of the adults and that of the young. No vegetable
matter was found in any of the stomachs, and the animal food was
distributed among a comparatively few elements. Bugs (Hemiptera)
are the largest item, and amount to nearly 36 percent. Caterpillars
and grasshoppers stand next, with 17 and 16 percent, respectively.
It is interesting to note that about three times as many grasshop-
pers are fed to the young as are eaten by the adults. Wasps and ants
amount to a little more than 6 percent, and are the smallest item.
Spiders appear to the extent of a little over 11 percent. Beetles,
however, constitute the most interesting item of the food. They
were eaten to an average extent of somewhat more than 11 percent,
and were nearly all ladybirds (Coccinellide) contained in the stom-
achs of five individuals of a brood of six. The amount in each
stomach varied from 15 to 65 percent of the contents, and averaged
29 percent of each of the six birds. It is a question which is the more
surprising, that this brood had eaten so many coccinellids, or that
the others had eaten so few. Only three other stomachs contained
any of these beetles and those were all adults. The house wren does
not exhibit any special proclivities for ladybirds, and it would seem
probable that in this case either other food was wanting or these
beetles were specially abundant.
In addition to the examination of stomachs, observations were made
upon the feeding of nestling wrens. A nest situated in the porch of
the house of Mr. W. O. Emerson, at Haywards, Cal., was observed
for one-hour periods from soon after the young were hatched until
they were nearly ready to fly. The nest was watched at various times
of day, so as to include as nearly as possible all hours of daylight.
During the first two periods the male aided in feeding the young,
but afterwards was not seen, and the whole care of the young de-
volved upon the mother. The number of young probably was not
fewer than six. Following are the results in tabular form:
| Forenoon. : Afternoon.
Date. | = | lege ats
Hour of ob- | ue \- Hour of ob- | our a
| servation. fe edings. servation. feedings.
May 18... 10. 00-11. 00 8 4. 00-5. 00 7
May 19... 9. 35-10. 35 13 4. 30-5. 30 10
May 20 10. 29-11. 29 BOR ere Es er ean Ine, Mcineresirarers
May 21 8, 23- 9. 23 20° 2. 01-8. 01 12
May 23 8. 22- 9,22 19 ee Semoeietelstotise sual sheared cela
May 26 10. 35-11. 35 iy Aa Rene a eco ae marers actrees
Mage oad essgusemegter rane bebadones 2. 36-3. 36 31
May 28...! 8.20- 9.20 | 88 lic i kehacecce:| some vey
May 30...| 10.40-11.40 | BIG carts eiassitnaciaian lceuremceat
62 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
As will be noticed, the whole time of observation covered a period
of thirteen days, although the nest was not watched every day. In
all the nest was watched for twelve hours, and the total number of
times that food was brought to the young was 284, or an average of
194 times per hour. The young were fed as early as 5 o’clock in the
morning and as late as 7 in the evening, thus making for the parent
birds a working day of fourteen hours. Only a little plain arithmetic
is necessary to show very nearly the number of insects destroyed by
this family in a single day.
These observations were made with watch in hand and the time of
each feeding noted. In many cases the parent bird was away in
search of food only half a minute. Once there was a heavy mist
nearly all day, when the mother wren was hard pressed to find food
for the ever-gaping mouths of her young. No flying insects were
abroad, and the supply of caterpillars from the immediate vicinity
had been exhausted. In this extremity the mother turned her atten-
tion to spiders and was seen to visit the interior of a summer house,
also to investigate a pile of flower pots and tubs and to plunge into
and under an evergreen hedge in search of something that would
answer for food. As the nest was watched at very short range, it was
often possible to determine the nature of the food brought by the
parent. When the nestlings were very young, it consisted almost
entirely of small green caterpillars, commonly called * canker-worms.’
Later this was varied by tipulid flies (daddy-long-legs), small moths,
and spiders. Some of the insects brought were uot determinable,
probably flies and wasps.
SUE AMLALARY.
From the above sketch of the food of the house wren it will be seen
that there is practically only one item to which exception can be taken,
namely, the coceinellid beetles, or ladybugs. But the record is so
meager that it is not safe to draw general conclusions. It is probable
that. a more extensive iivesigation of the food of the California bird
will show that if is entitled to the same high economic rank as its
eastern relath ec.
WEATDPS MARSH WREN.
(Poinatedytcs paiustris subspp.)
The marsh wren, as its name indicates, is a resident of swamps
and marshy grounds, At first thought its food might not appear to
he of any econonic importance, but investigation shows that it does
not differ from that of the orchard wrens as much as one might infer
from difference of habitat. Only 53 stomachs of this species have
heen obtained for examination, While this number is not sufficient
asa basis for final judgment, it suffices to show how closely the food
of this species resembles that of its congeners.
WRENS. 63
Vegetable food.—But little vegetable food was found in the stom-
ach of the marsh wren, and the precise value of most of that was not
determinable. A few seeds of sedge and one of amaranth were all
that were identified. The total amount was a trifle over 2 percent.
Animal food—Beetles, wasps, ants, bugs, caterpillars, and a few
miscellaneous insects, with some spiders and snails, make up the
bill of fare. As with the Bewick and the house wren, bugs are the
largest item, but do not quite equal the quantity eaten by those indus-
trious bug-hunters. While the Bewick eats these insects to the extent
of 31 percent of its food, the marsh wren eats them only to the amount
of 29 percent. In this respect there seems to be little difference
between the bird that gets its food from trees and the one that feeds
among the tules and sedges. The families represented are those of
the assassin-bugs, damsel-bugs, leaf-bugs, stink-bugs, leaf-hoppers,
and tree-hoppers, most of which are usually found on trees—in fact,
one is forced to the conclusion that the marsh wren must at times
forage upon trees or shrubs. Scales were found in one stomach,
which is another point of resemblance between the diet of this bird
and that of the habitual tree inhabiters. ;
In the marsh wren’s food caterpillars and chrysalids rank next to
bugs in importance. They amount to about 17 percent of the whole,
and appear in the food of every month. Cocoons of tineid moths
were contained in a nwnber of stomachs. another indication that the
birds visit trees.
Beetles constitute 16 percent of the food. While a number of the
commoner families are represented, the terrestrial forms are rather
more prominent than in the food of the arboreal wrens. A few cara-
bids and a number of coccinellids together make up 2 percent of the
food, and were the only useful insects eaten, unless the assassin-bugs
are reckoned as such. As these feed on other insects they must of
course do some good. Ants and wasps amount to about 8 percent
of the food, and most of them were eaten during the fall months.
Flies, grasshoppers, dragon-flies, and a few insect remains not fur-
ther identified make up over 11 percent of the food. They were
eaten very irregularl. Spiders constitute somevhat more than o
percent, and, as usual, are very regularly eaten, but in small mam-
bers. Smal] mollusks (snail) were caten by quite a number of birds.
and 1 stomach contained 11 specimens.
SUMMARY.
This brief review of the food of the marsh wren, while not abso-
lutely conclusive, is sufficiently near the truth to prove that the bird
is to be ranked among our eminently useful species. Of some birds it
has been said that their peculiar merit lies in the fact that they
reside in orchards and cultivated ground and hence destroy insect
64 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
pests in the very places where their mischief is done. This can not
be asserted of the marsh wren, but it must be remembered that many
harmful species of insects breed and live in marshes and waste places
as well as in grainfields and orchards, so that the birds which
destroy them on wild lands are removing the source of supply from
which are recruited the hosts that infest the farm.
CACTUS WREN.
(Heleodytes brunneicapillus. )
(Pl. IV.)
The cactus wren is so exclusively a bird of the desert and waste
places that its food may be thought to have little, if any, economic
interest. It is not safe to assume, however, that the bird will never
affect the interests of agriculture because it does not do so at present.
Moreover, its food habits have a scientific interest which justifies a
brief review. A number of the birds whose stomachs have been
examined for this work were taken near orchards and grainfields,
and there can be little doubt that, with the spread of cultivation, the
species will adapt itself to a somewhat different environment and
become of economic importance. We find, in fact, that its food is
made up of practically the same orders and families of insects that
compose the diet of birds living on agricultural lands, but the relative
proportions differ widely, and in most cases the species are probably
different.
Only 41 stomachs of the cactus wren were available for examina-
tion. They were taken in the region from Los Angeles to San Ber-
nardino, and from July to January, inclusive. They contained about
83 percent of animal matter to 17 of vegetable.
Animal food.—Beetles and Hymenoptera, the latter ants and
wasps, were the two most important items of the animal food. Each
made up about 27 percent of the total. The beetles belong to several
families, but weevils, or snout-beetles, were the most noticeable, and
amount to somewhat more than 10 percent. One stomach contained
11 of these insects and another 10, while others held fewer. Only
one species, Rhigopsis effracta, was identified. ive of these were in
1 stemach. The other beetles belang {o mere common families.
Ceceinellids were found in 1 stomach and. carrion beetles in. 2.
They were the only insects noted that can be considered as useful.
THymenoptera are represented by many ants and a few wasps. These
are just the insects which the cactus wren might be expected to find,
for dry land and sunshine are the conditions which favor these crea-
tures. Grasshoppers amount to a little more than 15 percent. This
PLATE IV.
Bull. 30, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
CacTus WREN (HELEODYTES BRUNNEICAPILLUS COUESI).
WRENS. 65
is the only wren that eats these insects to any considerable extent
except as nestlings.
Bugs (Hemiptera) amount to only a little more than 5 percent of
the food, which is the smallest quantity eaten by any of the wren
family. This item, however, contains one unexpected element—that
is, black scales (Saissetia). These appeared in 6 stomachs, and must
have been obtained from trees or shrubs, possibly from fruit trees.
Jn any case their destruction is a welcome service. Caterpillars and
their allies (Lepidoptera) were eaten to the extent of a little more
than 5 percent. Among them were many cocoons of tineid moths,
indicating again that the cactus wren obtains some of its food from
trees and shrubs. A few unidentifiable insects and spiders amount
to somewhat more than 3 percent. This is the smallest record for
spiders of any of the wren family, which is much given to eating
these creatures, finding them in crannies in rocks, stumps, and other
places. A few of the long bones of a tree frog were found in 1
-stomach.
Vegetable food.—Seventeen percent of vegetable matter was found
in the stomachs of this bird. This is the largest percentage found
in the stomachs of any species of wren yet examined. .The vege-
table food of the cactus wren consists of fruit pulp and weed seeds.
The former amounts to nearly 13 percent, but in all cases where
identification was possible consisted of wild species. Of these, only
3 were fully identified—cactus (Opuntia), elderberry (Sambucus),
and Cascara (Rhamnus), the last only in 1 stomach. Nothing
was found to indicate that cultivated varieties had been eaten.
Seeds, which amount to 4 percent, are those of the poison oak (Rhus).
and a nonpoisonous species, with filaree (Erodium) and Amisinckia,
most of them useless plants or worse.
SUM MARY.
From this brief inspection of the cactus wren’s food it is seen that
it contains but little that is useful to man, while the great bulk is
made up of elements that are, or would be, harmful if present on
cultivated lands. The bird thus sustains the good reputation of
the rest of its family.
OTHER WRENS.
Some half a dozen stomachs each of the western winter wren (Olbzor-
chilus hiemalis pacificus) and dotted canyon wren (Catherpes meni-
canus punctulatus) and the rock wren (Salpinctes obsoletus) have
been examined. This number is entirely too small to serve for
specific statements in regard to their food except that it may be said
9379—No. 30—07——_5
66 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
that it corresponds closely to that of the other species of the family
discussed in foregoing pages.
From this somewhat limited investigation of the food of the
California wrens several points may be regarded as established:
(1) That these wrens are essentially insectivorous; (2) that an over-
whelming majority of the insects composing their food are harmful
species; (3) that the quantity of vegetable food eaten is so small as
to have no economic importance.
CALIFORNIA CREEPER.
(Certhia familiaris occidentalis.)
Only 7 stomachs of the California creeper were available for
examination, but they confirm the good opinion observers have
formed of the habits of this bird. Like the titmice and nuthatches,
the creeper is an indefatigable forager on the trunks and branches
of trees, and the food it obtains there is of the same nature—that is,
small beetles (inany of them weevils), wasps, ants, bugs, caterpillars,
and a few spiders. Of the 7 stomachs examined, only 1 contained
vegetable food, and this had only 19 percent of seed, too much digested
for identification.
While the creeper is not systematically classed with the nuthatches
and titmice, its food habits closely ally it to these birds and to the
wrens, and whatever good is true of them applies with equal force
to the creeper.
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE.
(Paridee. )
Few families of birds contain so many absolutely harmless and
thoroughly useful species as that of the nuthatches and titmice. All
of the American species are small, and several are so minute that the
larger species of humming birds exceed them in size. In colors they
are neither brilliant nor showy, black, white, brown, and gray being
the predominant tints of their plumage. In manners and voice they
are equally unobtrusive, and so little do their movements attract atten-
tion that one may be surrounded by them in the forest before he is
conscious of their presence. More than forty species and subspecies
of the titmouse family reside within the limits of the United States,
of which some fifteen live in California.
From an economic standpoint the titmice are the reverse of insig-
nificant. They are essentially inhabitants of trees and shrubs, and
obtain abnost their entire living from them. Their food consists
largely of small insects and their eges and larve, and, as the individ-
uals of most of the species are numerous and spend all the daylight
hours searching for food, it follows that the number of harmful
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. . 67
creatures they destroy is beyond calculation. As conservators of
forest and orchards there are few birds that compare with them.
The insects they destroy are largely those that feed upon the leaves,
blossoms, and fruit of trees, with some that bore into the wood or
burrow under the bark, thereby injuring or killing the tree itself.
On the other hand, they do not prey upon fruit, grain, or other prod-
uct of husbandry. The small amount of vegetable matter they eat
consists principally of small galls, whose destruction is a benefit, with
a few seeds and a little wild fruit.
PYGMY NUTHATCH.
(Sitta pygmea.)
The nuthatches are small, inconspicuous birds that live upon trees
and for the most part remain in forests or groves, though not rarely
visiting the orchard. While allied to titmice they form a fairly well-
defined group and can be easily distinguished from titmice proper.
As gymnasts they probably lead the avian world. After watching
their movements one might suppose that nature had quite exempted
them from the operation of the laws of gravity, as they move up or
down a tree with equal facility, or along the underside of a horizontal
branch where they inspect a promising knot hole or cranny, appar-
ently without the least idea that they are upside down. The food
they obtain from trees is of the same general character as that of the
rest of the titmouse family.
Unfortunately only a few stomachs of these birds are at hand for
examination—enough, however, to give a general idea of the diet.
The pygmy nuthatch is the smallest of the group, but as a
destroyer of noxious insects it is far from insignificant. Only 31
stomachs of this feathered midget are available for examination, but
the number is sufficient to bring out some strong points of the bird’s
diet. The relative proportions of animal anc vegetable food, as indi-
cated by the contents of these stomachs, are approximately 83 percent
of the former to 17 percent of the latter.
Animal food—The largest item of animal food is Hymenoptera,
composed mostly of wasps, with a few ants. They amount to about
38 percent of the whole. Next in order are Hemiptera, aggregating
23 percent. A large proportion of these belong to the family Cer-
copide, commonly known as spittle-insects, from the fact that they
develop inside of a froth-like substance resembling saliva produced
in summer upon grass and various plants and trees. While none
of these insects have yet become pests, there can be no doubt that
collectively they do considerable harm to plants, as sometimes they
are very abundant and subsist entirely upon their sap.
68 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
In this connection peculiar interest attaches to the contents of 20
stomachs of the pygmy nuthatch from the pine woods of Pacific
Grove, near Monterey, June 24 to July 13. Eighteen of these
stomachs contained remains of Cercopide, and six were filled with
them. The average for the 18 stomachs is a little more than 76 per-
cent of all the food. They were not identified specifically, but
undoubtedly are one of the several species known to feed upon the
pine. Beetles of various families form about 12 percent of the food.
There were many weevils, or snout-beetles, in the stomachs, and some
coccinellids, which were the only useful insects found. They amount
to 9.6 percent, which is the largest record for any bird yet examined,
except the vireos; but as this percentage is based upon the examina-
tion of so few stomachs, it can not be considered as wholly reliable.
Caterpillars amount to 8 percent, and with a few spiders (1 percent)
account for the rest of the animal food.
Vegetable food—The vegetable portion is made up almost entirely
of seeds, of which a majority are those of conifers, as was to be
expected from the habits of the bird.
Two other species of nuthatches, the slender-billed (Sitia ¢.
aculeuta) and the red-breasted (Sittu canadensis) occur in California.
A few stomachs of each have been examined and the contents found
to agree substantially with the foregoing.
SUMMARY.
In conclusion, it may be said that, like other genera of the Paride,
nuthatches are eminently useful birds. They do not prey upon culti-
vated crops, cat but few useful insects, and probably are among our
most efficient conservators of the forest and of the orchard.
PLAIN TIT.
(Baolophus inoruatis.)
(Plate V.)
The plain tit, like the rest of its family, is quiet and unobtrusive,
attracting little notice by its voice and movemeuts, and probably 1s
the most modestly dressed of them all. While 1t seems to prefer to
lint on oaks, it does not neglect fruit trees, and often may be seen
flitting about the orchard.
The general character of its food is the same as that of other ea
arboreal species. The relative proportions consumed, however,
differ somewhat from those taken by other members of the family.
The plain tit eats a greater proportion of vegetable food than any
other titmouse so far as known, and, what is more remarkable, @
large part of this consists of the pulp of fruit.
Bull. 30, Biological Survey U.S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE V
PLAIN TITMOUSE |BAEOLOPHUS INORNATUS).
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. 69
The following brief account of the food of this bird can be con-
sidered only preliminary, as but 76 stomachs were available for exam-
ination. These, however, are distributed through the year, so that
every month is represented by at least three. While these results may
be modified by future investigation, they probably afford a fair
general idea of the yearly food of the species.
Animal food.—Unlike most of the titmice, the plain tit eats less
animal than vegetable food, the proportion being 43 percent of animal
to 57 of vegetable. Examination of a greater number of stomachs
may modify these figures but probably will not reverse them. The
animal food is quite evenly divided among a number of elements, but,
as with the bush tit, bugs (Hemiptera) appear to be the favorite,
mostly eaten during the summer months. These amount to 12
percent of the food. This is a little more than one-fourth of the
amount of Hemiptera eaten by the bush tit. The black olive scale is
a prominent element of this part of the diet, and forms nearly 5 of
the 12 percent. In the month of August nine stomachs were taken,
and 34 percent of their contents consisted of these scales, while one
stomach was filled with them. The plain tit probably eats this insect
more or less throughout the year, but the limited number of stomachs
under consideration does not warrant a positive statement. The other
hemipterous food consists of representatives of several families, such
as Jeaf-hoppers (Jasside), jumping plant-lice (Psyllide), tree-hop-
pers (Membracide), and other remains not identified.
Lepidoptera, represented mostly by caterpillars, are the next
most important ingredient of the food. They amount to nearly 11
percent, and are mostly eaten during the warm months, though one
stomach taken in March was filled with caterpillars and one moth.
Beetles (Coleoptera) are next in importance in the food, of which
they form nearly 7 percent. All are harmful species, but the mem-
bers of one family are especially interesting. The genus Balaninus
is composed of weevils in which the snout attains its greatest length,
and sometimes is as long as the rest of the body. The insects, by
means of this long snout, bore into nuts and acorns, w herein they de-
posit eggs, aie” hatch grubs that eat the nut. The tit finds these
beetles while foraging upon the oaks. One stomach contained the
remains of 13 of them, another 11, a third 8, and a fourth 7, while
others contained fewer. The plain tit feeds upon mast to some extent,
and it is interesting to note that some of the stomachs which held
remains of Balaninus contained acorn meat also, showing that the
birds found the one while foraging for the other.
Hymenoptera in ‘the shape of ants amount to nearly 4 percent,
While wasps make up the total of this order to about 6 percent.
70 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Other insects aggregate a little more than 5 percent. Tuipulid flies
(daddy-long-legs) were found in several stomachs, as were grass-
hoppers also. One stomach contained the remains of 13 of the latter,
a remarkable number for so small a bird, but the bulk was not great,
and they were probably the débris of several meals. Spiders are
a very constant article of food, but do not appear in great numbers,
as the average for the year is somewhat less than 1 percent.
Vegetable food—In the vegetable food of the plain tit, fruit
amounts to nearly 82 percent. Fruit is a rather surprising item of
the food of this bird, as no one, so far as the writer can learn, has
ever accused it of destroving fruit. The quantity is three times as
much as is eaten by the linnet, and is another illustration of the fact
that in estimating the status of a species the number of individuals
as well as the amount eaten by cach individual must be considered.
The fruit consumed appears to be of the larger cultivated varieties,
as no seeds of wild berrics were found.
Cherries were identified in a number of stomachs, and pulp of the
larger fruits was abundant. As considerable of this was contained
in stomachs taken in the late fall and winter months, it is evident
that it was refuse left on the tree and of no value. Not only does the
plain tit eat fruit, but to some extent it indulges also in grain. Oats
were found in a number of stomachs and constituted nearly 30 per-
cent of the contents of two stomachs taken in January. Grain is
probably not eaten to any considerable extent, however, as the amount
for the year is but little over 1.5 percent, and oats was the only variety
identified. Leaf galls, seeds of poison oak, weed seeds, unidentifiable
matter and rubbish make up the remainder, 24 percent, of the vege-
table food. None of these are of much economic importance, except
that the distribution of poison-oak seed is a nuisance.
SUMMARY.
From this somewhat imperfect review of the food of the plain tit
it is evident that in its present numbers it is useful. The insects it
eats are practically all harmful and the scales exceedingly so. More-
over, its habit of foraging in trees enables it to capture some of the
worst enemies of fruit and renders its work in this direction invalu-
able. On the other hand, it cats quite a large percentage of fruit,
most of which appears to be of cultivated varieties, and should the
bird ever become as abundant as the linnet now is it would undoubt-
edly be a pest. This contingency, however, is extremely unlikely.
CTLESTNUT-SIDED CTITCICADEE,
(Parus rufescens subspp. )
While this bird at present inhabits mountain regions rather than
orchards, still it may not be out of place to give a short digest of our
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. 71
knowledge of its food. Fifty-seven stomachs were available for
examination, and these were taken in every month of the vear,
except: March, April, and May. The food consisted of nearly 65
percent of animal matter and 35 of vegetable.
Animal food—Caterpillars constitute 18 percent of the animal
portion. They were found in nearly every month in which stomachs
were taken, there being a fairly good percentage even in January and
December. The greatest amount, 53 percent, was eaten in August.
Hemiptera, consisting of leaf-hoppers, tree-hoppers, and olive and
other scales, constitute the most important item of food, and amount
to about 25 percent. These were found in all except two winter
months. Wasps were eaten to the extent of 13 percent of the food,
but no ants were found. Beetles amount to less than 2 percent of
the food, but nearly all are noxious; weevils appeared in one stomach.
Flies and grasshoppers are conspicuous by their absence, and not
even a trace of one was discovered. Spiders are a very constant ele-
ment of the food of nearly all the titmice. In that of the chestnut-
side they amount to nearly 7 percent for the year, though in August
they constitute nearly 16 percent.
Vegetable food—The vegetable portion of the food consists of
fruit pulp 8 percent, seeds nearly 20 percent, and miscellaneous mat-
ter 7 percent. Fruit pulp was found only in a few stomachs taken in
the fall and winter and was probably waste fruit. The seeds eaten
were mostly those of coniferous trees, as was to be expected of a bird
which spends so much of its life in evergreen forests. The miscel-
laneous items of the vegetable food are leaf galls, bits of moss, and
rubbish.
SUMMARY.
The above sketch of the chestnut-sided chickadee, while very
imperfect, suffices to show the general character of its food. A few
stomachs also of the mountain chickadee (Purus gambeli) have been
examined and the contents found to agree in a general way with the
food of others of the group.
WREN TIT.
(Chamaeca fasciata subspp.)
This modest, secretive bird, like the eastern chat, is more often
heard than seen. At present it does not often live in orchards and gar-
dens, and when it visits these it sticks closely to hedges and the denser
parts of the shrubbery. In general it keeps to its original abiding
places in the dense chaparral of canyons and hillsides. So long as it
is confined chiefly to these situations its food habits will never be of
72 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
more than secondary importance, but as cultivation spreads the bird
will be forced more and more to reside in cultivated districts.
The number of stomachs available for examination is 165, and as
they represent every month except July they afford a fair idea of the
salient features of the bird’s yearly food. Of this 52 percent is
animal matter, insects and spiders, and 48 percent of various vegetable
substances.
-lnimal food—The most important item of the animal food con-
sists of ants and wasps (Hymenoptera), which amount to 23 percent
of the whole. This is in strong contrast to the bush tit, whose diet
contains scarcely any of these insects. About half of the Hymenop-
tera are ants. This is exactly what might be expected of a bird of
such terrestrial habits and one so given to lurking under bushes and
about decayed logs and rubbish. The other insects of this order
are small wasps. Beetles, collectively, the next most important item
of food, amount to about 10 percent. The only useful species iden-
tified were a few ladybirds (Coccinellide), and a separate account of
these was kept in order to estimate the harm done by their destruc-
tion. The result shows that the diet of the wren tit contains less than
1 percent of these useful beetles. The remaining beetles belong to
various families, all of them harmful to vegetation. Caterpillars
constitute a little less than 8 percent of the food, and are a very con-
stant element of the diet. They appear to be eaten at all seasons, but’
in the early summer they amount to about one-fourth of the food.
Quite a number of cocoons of tineid moths also were present in the
food.
Bugs (Hemiptera) are eaten to the extent of about 7 percent of the
animal diet. In this respect the wren tit differs from the bush tit,
over 44 percent of whose food is made up of these noxious insects.
In one particular, however, the two birds are alike; scales (Coccide)
are prominent in the food of both. The black olive scale (Saéssetia
olen) and the greedy scale (lspidiotus rapurc) were identified in the
stomachs of both birds, and many not specifically identified were
found. The scales were probably obtained from orchards, as it is
not likely that these insects have spread to wild plants and forest
trees. as seales are to be had at all seasons they are a constant
clement of the food of tits. The remaining amimal food, less than
5 percent, is composed of various insects and some spiders. One
stomach contained the legs of a grasshopper and another the remains
of a wood-cricket. These are the only orthopterous remains in any
stomach. hes (Diptera) were eaten very sparingly. Spiders ap-
peared ina great many stomachs but not in large numbers. They
amount to a little less than 2 percent of the food. In one stomach
were found 26 mites, commonly parasitic on beetles and other insects.
Their hosts had probably been eaten by the tit.
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. 73
Vegetable food—The vegetable contingent of the food, 48 percent,
is made up of various substances, but may be arranged in three cate-
gories—fruit, poison-oak seeds, and other vegetable matter. Fruit,
identified by seeds, pulp, and skins, amounts to a little more than 20
percent of the whole food. Few direct complaints, however, have been
lodged against the wren tit on the score of damaging fruit, and yet
this record is nearly twice that of the linnet—the bird against which
the heaviest charges are made by the orchardist. The reason for
this difference is probably not far to seek. There are undoubtedly
a hundred linnets in California to one wren tit. This again illus-
trates the point before made, that the mischief done by birds usually
results from a superabundance of the individuals of a particular
species, all uniting simultaneously to attack some particular product.
Moreover, the fruit consumed by the wren tit consists largely of wild
varieties—such as elder berries (Sambucus), snow berries (Symphori-
carpos), coffee berries (Rhamnus), twinberries (Lonicera involu-
erata), and others of a similar character. Seeds of blackberries or
raspberries (Rubus) were found in a few stomachs, but these may
have been either wild or cultivated.
As the seeds of poison oak (hus diversiloba) occurred in many
stomachs a separate account of them was kept. From August to
February, inclusive, they form a constant and important element of
the diet. For these seven months they constitute more than one-
fourth of the food, and the average for the year is over 16 percent.
It seems natural enough that the wren tit should eat these seeds, as
they are abundant and easily accessible. The fact is to be deplored,
however, as they are not destroyed in the stomach, but either pass
through or are regurgitated in condition to germinate. The seeds
apparently are eaten for the sake of the rather thin layer of dry white
pulp that surrounds them. No doubt this is very nutritious, as in
winter poison-oak seeds are a common article of diet for many species
of birds. The rest of the vegetable-food, over 11 percent, is made up
of a few weed seeds, leaf galls, and rubbish. None of it has special
economic significance.
FOOD OF YOUNG.
Among the stomachs examined were those of a brood of 5 nest-
lings about two weeks old, and therefore nearly ready to leave the
nest. The results are of interest as showing that the wren tit fol-
lows the usual rule and feeds its young entirely on animal food.
The largest item is caterpillars, which amount to 63 percent of the
contents. Spiders, with their cocoons and eggs, are next in import-
ance, with 15.6 percent. Bugs, mostly leaf-hoppers, form 12.2 per-
cent. Beetles of the May-beetle family, with a trace of eggshell,
74 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
make up the remainder, 9.2 percent. One can not fail to notice the
soft nature of most of this food provided for the young. The beetles
are the only exception, and these were the smallest item.
SUMMARY.
In summing up it is evident that so far as its natural food is con-
cerned the wren tit does little or no harm, as coccinellid beetles, the
only really useful insects it eats, are consumed very sparingly. Its
vegetable diet presents two points for criticism. It eats a moderate
amount of fruit, and were the bird as abundant as the lnnet the harm
it would do in orchards would perhaps more than counterbalance the
good. The wren tit, however, naturally is a denizen of dense shrub-
bery, and as this is cleared away for farms and orchards the species
is likely to diminish in numbers rather than increase, unless its habits
raclically change. The consumption of the seeds of poison oak is an
unfortunate habit, since it aids in the dissemination of this poisonous
plant, already too common and widespread. All things considered,
the wren tit for the present is to be classed as beneficial.
CALIFORNIA BUSH TIT.
(Psaltriparus mininus californicus.)
(Frontispiece. )
The bush tit is one of the smallest species of the family, and
although its name implies that it is partial to bushes, it more often
is seen in large oaks and ‘frequently on the tops of the highest. trees.
It shows the same indifference to the presence of man as the rest of
the family, and frequently may be observed scrambling over orchard
trees in search of its favorite food and paying no attention to the
observer, That it does not prey upon fruit to an appreciable degree
appears from the fact that Jess than 1 percent of its food for the year
consists of fruit. Insects that live on trees, however, constitute
four-fifths of its food, and most of these are harmful.
In the investigation of the food of this bird 353 stomachs were
examined. They were collected in every month of the year, although
April is represented by but a single one and March by only six. The
greater number were taken during the growing months, when fruit
and grain abound, and the fact that in these months the bird ate
almost none of these products speaks volumes in its favor. The first
analysis of the food of the year gives nearly 81 percent animal mat-
fer, composed entirely of insects and spiders, to 19 percent of vege-
(able. As the bush tit inhabits the same range during the year,
monthly variations in the kind and proportions of food are only
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. 75
such as seasonal changes necessitate, and as these do not largely
affect insects, which constitute the great bulk of the bush tit’s food, it
follows that the variation in diet from one month to another is not
great. The smallest quantity of animal food was in March, when
it amounted to 53 percent, but the percentage was almost exactly the
same for November. One stomach taken in April contained nothing
but insects and spiders, and 11 collected in June contained no vege-
table food. Probably examination of a greater number collected in
these months would result differently. While the material available
for the present investigation is not so extensive as could be desired, it
is sufficient to indicate beyond reasonable doubt that the relative pro-
portions of animal and vegetable food in the diet of the bush tit vary
little from season to season.
Animal food.—The largest item in the insect portion of this bird’s
food consists of bugs (Hemiptera), which amount to over 44 percent
of the whole. The gnatcatchers are the only birds yet investigated
whose diet is made up so largely of this order of insects. Moreover,
the particular families of Hemiptera so extensively eaten by the bush
tit are the two that are most destructive to the interests of horticul-
ture—namely, the plant-lice (Aphidide), and bark-lice, or scales
(Coccide). The last amounts to nearly 19 percent of the year’s food,
and are eaten in every month. The greater number are consumed in
July, 46 percent; June follows second in rank, when they constitute
33 percent of the food of that month. The large black olive scale
(Saissetia olew) was identified in 44 stomachs, but other species also
were found. The question is often asked, Does any bird feed upon
the San Jose scale? While the writer is not prepared to give a posi-
tive affirmative answer from direct evidence, there can be no reason-
able doubt that this insect is often eaten by birds. It must be borne
in mind, however, that the so-called San Jose scale is one of the
smaller species, and its distinctive characters are so minute that after’
it has been taken into a bird’s stomach, mixed with other food, and
more or less digested, it is impossible to determine its identity. It
is easy to ascertain that a pasty mass in a bird’s stomach is composed
of scales partly digested, but to identify the species is quite another
matter. The olive scale and others of its genus, on the other hand,
-are so large and their shells are of such structure that they can often
be identified, at least generically, even from fragments.
While the San Jose scale was not positively determined, another
species of the same genus, the greedy scale (lspéd/otivs rapav), was
found in 4 stomachs, and scales not specifically identified were found
in 113. Of a total of 353 stomachs, 158 held scales; several were
entirely filled with them, and in quite a number upwards of 90 per-
cent of their contents consisted of these insects. No other family of
insects was identified in so many stomachs. As it is certain that the
76 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
food contained in a bird’s stomach at a given time is only a fraction
of the daily consumption, we may infer that not many days pass in
the life of a bush tit when it does not eat a considerable number of
scales.
Before leaving the subject it may be well to add a few words on
the economic relations of scale-insects in order that the value of the
work done by the bush tit may be fully appreciated. Mr. Marlatt
says:
The most destructive insect enemies of fruits in California are undoubtedly
the scale insects, few if any other insects, aside from the grape Phylloxera, at
all approaching them in this respect. Of these, the ones of greatest moment
and in the control of which vast sums of money are expended are the black
scale, the red scale, and the San Jose scale. For the olive and citrus plants
the black scale is the most important, and for the deciduous plants the San
Jose scale takes similar rank.
When the immense number of bush tits and other birds in Califor-
nia that eat scale insects is considered, it becomes evident that the
aggregate of these pests annually destroyed by them must be enor-
mous. It may be urged that despite the attacks of birds, scales have
caused, and still are causing, much damage to fruit trees, and that the
work of birds alone is inadequate to save the trees from destruction.
This is undoubtedly true, but 1t must be remembered that the birds
are confronted with abnormal conditions. The great and rapid
development of the fruit-growing industry on the Pacific coast and
the simultaneous and widespread introduction of several new species
of scales resulted in a sudden increase of these pests, while their ene-
mies, the birds, enjoyed no such opportunities for increase. In time,
no doubt, an equilibrium would have been reached, and birds would
have played an important part in establishing this by exerting a con-
stant and steady check upon the increase of scales. Unaided, how-
ever, their numbers are too few to cope with the insects which, under
favorable conditions of climate and environment and unmolested by
other natural insect. enemies, multiply to countless myriads.
The remaining portion of the hemipterous food of the bush tit,
over 31 per cent, is made up of plant-lice, tree-hoppers (Membracide),
leaf-hoppers (Jassida), some jumping plant-lice (Psyllidw), and a
considerable number of false chinch bugs (Vysins angustatus), with
a few lace-bugs (Tingitidw). Of the plant-lice little need be said.
As pests to vegetation their reputation is world-wide. No part of a
plant is free from attack. They infest leaves, trunk, and roots, and
some of their legions of species prey upon nearly every kind of Jand
plant. They area frequent element of the food of the tit, but as their
a Thsect cenit ol in @ sironilel: by C. L. Marhitt, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture,
Yeurhook, 1806, p. 220,
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. 77
bodies are of the softest texture specific identification is not possible.
Many of them, however, were determined to be of the species com-
monly called ‘ woolly aphides,’ as their bodies are covered with a
white cottony or woolly substance. Aphides were identified in 30
stomachs, but it is probable that they were contained in more, as a
pasty mass that could only be called ‘ hemipterous remains’ was of
frequent occurrence. Leaf-hoppers were found in many stomachs,
and appear to be favorite food. Tree-hoppers also are eaten to a con-
siderable extent, and as their bodies are hard, like those of beetles,
they are more easily recogiiized than plant-lice. The jumping plant-
lice were found in a few stomachs, but were rather difficult to dis-
tinguish in the conglomeration of plant-lice and other soft-bodied
insects. False chinch bugs were found in a number of stomachs
from the southern part of the State. These, perhaps, were the best
preserved of any of the insects, for in most cases they could be dis-
tinguished individually. Over 50 were taken from one stomach.
Next to the bug family, the favorite food of the bush tits seems to
be beetles. They constitute somewhat over 10 percent of the year’s
food and attain their maximum in September, when they amount to
a little more than 27 percent of the food. The fewest were taken in
December—less than 1 percent—but in all the other months they were
found to a moderate extent except in the one stomach taken in April,
which contained none. Among them were species of the ladybug
family (Coccinellide), which are useful insects, as they are mostly
carnivorous and feed largely upon plant-lice. In order to ascertain
just how much harm the tit does in devouring ladybugs, a separate
account. was kept, and it was found that the total amount eaten dur-
ing the year was 2.4 percent of the whole food. Most of these insects
were eaten in September and October, when the consumption
amounted to 11 and 6 percent, respectively. These are the only
decidedly useful insects eaten by the bush tit, and in view of their
small number the subject may be dismissed without further com-
ment. The other beetles taken were largely small leaf-beetles (Chrys-
omelide), all of which are harmful. With them were some small
weevils (Rhynchophora), which feed upon seeds and other parts of
plants, with a few scolytids that burrow under the bark of trees to
their great injury.
Butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), most of them in the larval
form (caterpillars), are next to beetles in importance in the food of
the bush tit. They are, however, far from being such favorite food
as bugs. The total is a little more than 16 percent. They are fairly
evenly distributed through the year, though in spring and early sum-
mer they are consumed to a somewhat larger extent than in fall and
winter. The greatest consumption was in May, when they aggregated
78 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
nearly 69 percent. Lepidoptera in the adult form do not as a rule
constitute an important part of the diet of birds, but, with the excep-
tion of the flycatchers, the titmice perhaps eat the most. The greater
number consumed by these insects, however, are eaten as larvee—cat-
erpillars. A few, however, are eaten in the pupa state, and here the
bush tit has a good record. In a number of stomachs were remains
of the pupe of the codling moth, one of the worst pests to the apple
industry. This insect is protected from the attacks of birds by its
peculiar mode of life. It passes the larval stage inside the apple.
The adult moth flies mostly by night and hides during the day.
When the larva is full grown it leaves the apple and seeks a place of
concealment, such as a crevice in the bark of the tree, a crack in the
trunk, or among rubbish on the ground, where it changes to a chrys-
alis. It is in this stage that the insect is most vulnerable to the
attacks of birds, and as the whole family of titmice get most of their
food by searching in just such places as those used for concealment by
the larva, it is not surprising that they find and devour many of them.
The cocoons of certain tineid moths are a very constant, though not
large, component of the food of the bush tit. The larve of many of
the Tineina are leaf-miners, and therefore injurious when attacking
economic plants.
Strangely enough, wasps and ants (Hymenoptera) are nearly absent
from the food of this bird. The total amount for the year is less
than 14 percent. In view of the fact that ants are always crawling
over the trunks and branches of trees, the very places where the tits
feed, it seems strange that so few of them are eaten. Moreover,
plant-lice always have ants in attendance upon them, and when tits
eat so many plant-lice it is rather remarkable that they should not
take some of the ants also, as do the smaller woodpeckers, whose food
habits are in many respects so similar. In 353 stomachs only two
ants were identified, one in the adult and one in the pupal stage, and
these were in separate stomachs. In 17 other stomachs a few frag-
ments of what probably were small wasps were found, which make up
the total of the hymenopterous diet of the bush tit.
The remaining animal food of this bird, about § percent, is com-
posed of various insects, such as a few flies, a few bits of grasshoppers,
insects’ eggs not further identified, with a considerable number of
spiders. That the tits should not eat grasshoppers is not surprising,
as these insects do not. commonly infest trees where the birds feed,
and as a rule they are rather large game for such small birds. The
great bulk of the 8 percent, however, consists of spiders, which con-
stitute a constant item of food in every month. Quite a number of
pseudoscorpions also were found in the stomachs, but, owing to their
minute size, the percentage is not very noticeable.
NUTHATCHES AND TITMICE. 79
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the bush tit may be consid-
ered under two categories—fruit and miscellaneous matter. Fruit in
some form was found in stomachs taken in the months from August
to November, inclusive. The average amount eaten in those four
months was a little less than 1 percent. It is represented in the
stomachs by pulp and skins, which have not been further identified.
The miscellaneous vegetable matter is composed of a few seeds, gran-
ules of poison oak (Rhus diversiloba), leaf galls, and rubbish. The
seeds of poison oak are eaten by many birds, and so are distributed
about the country, but, as a rule, they are too large to be swallowed
by the tit, which contents itself with pecking off the wax surrounding
the seed. This is identified in the stomachs by certain woody gran-
wes. A large portion of the vegetable food consists of small galls,
apparently from leaves. They are eaten when first developed, when
young and tender. As each of these probably contained an egg
or grub, it is questionable if they should not be classed as animal
food. The remainder of the vegetable matter is of such a nature that
the only term which really describes it is ‘rubbish.’ It is probable
that it is mostly taken accidentally along with other food, and perhaps
should not be considered in the food category.
FOOD OF NESTLINGS.
Among the 353 stomachs of the bush tits whose food has been
discussed was one brood of eight nestlings about ten days old. As
these are the only nestlings collected, their food would merit atten-
tion, but examination shows it to be of unusual interest. The vege-
table matter in these stomachs was only three-fourths of 1 percent
and consisted of one seed and some rubbish. The animal matter
comprised, approximately : Beetles 2, wasps 2, bugs 8, caterpillars and
pup 80, and spiders 7 percent. The point of greatest interest,
however, lies in the fact that every one of these stomachs contained
pupe of the codling moth, distributed as follows: Two stomachs
contained 2 each, two contained 3 each, one contained 4, one 7, one 9,
and one 11, making 41 in all, or an average of over 5 to each. The
oak tree in which these birds were found was in a belt of timber
along a creek, and just across the stream was a considerable area of
neglected orchard. It is evident that the parent birds used this
orchard as a foraging ground and did their best toward remedying
the neglect of the owner. As with nestling birds feeding and diges-
tion are almost continuous during the hours of daylight it follows
that the above record would be several times repeated during a day’s
feeding. There were probably not less than a dozen nests of the
bush tit (several were seen) along the border of this orchard, and
if, as is probable, the occupants all did as good work as the ones
80 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
recorded it is evident that the birds must exert a powerful restrictive
influence upon the increase of the codling moth, as well as other
insects.
SUMMARY.
In a résumé of the food of the bush tit the most prominent points
to be considered are the fact that four-fifths of its diet consists of
insects and spiders, nearly all of which are harmful; that more than
half of its animal food is limited to a single order of insects, Hemip-
tera; that it eats the particular families of this order which contain
the worst of insect pests; that the vegetable contingent of the food is
made up almost entirely of substances of no economic value. It is
doubtful if more efficient checks upon the increase of many species
of forest and orchard insects can be found than the titmice and other
closely related species. Bush tits, therefore, are a valuable asset to
the State of California and should be protected and encouraged in
every possible way.
Following is a list of insects identified in the stomachs of bush tits:
COLEOPTERA.
Crepidodera hetrines. NCYTMAUS NANUS.
Diachus auratus. Notorus alameda,
Orthoperus sp. Anthicus sp.
Corticaria scissus. Apion vespertinum.
Neyninus marginicollis, Deporaus glastinus.
Neymnus pallens,
HEMIPTERA.
Vysius angustatus. Naissetia olee.
Geocoris bullatus. Aspidiotus rapag.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Carpocapsa pomonella.
The following families of Hemiptera were identified :
Tingitida. Psy llidee.
Capsidee. Coccidie,
Membracidie, Aphididae.
Jasside.
KINGLETS.
Kinglets, like gnatcatchers and titmice, are small, active birds and
spend most of their lives on trees. So nearly do the feeding habits of
these diminutive arboreal species resemble each other that in winter
it is not unusual to see companies of titimice, kinglets, creepers, and
nuthatehes all together, engaged in the same unending search for
KINGLETS. 81
food. When one notices how thoroughly each tree is inspected by
dozens of pairs of keen, prying eyes, he is surprised that any insects or
their eggs should survive to produce broods.
RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET.
(Regulus calendula.)
The ruby-crowned kinglet is known in California principally as a
winter resident, though in some of the high mountains it remains
through the summer and breeds. Its small size would prevent it
from doing appreciable injury to fruit or grain were any to be had
when it is in the fruit and grain raising regions.
As might be inferred from field observations, its diet consists
almost entirely of insects and their eggs, and the number it destroys
is beyond computation.
In investigating the food of the kinglet 294 stomachs were exam-
ined, all taken in California from September to April, inclusive.
Only 1 stomach was collected in September, 5 in March, and 5 in
April. The other included months are fairly well represented. The
food consisted of 94 percent of animal matter and 6 percent of vege-
table. It was made up of insects, spiders, and pseudoscorpions—
minute creatures resembling microscopic lobsters—fruit, weed seeds,
ete.
Animal food—The animal food is quite evenly distributed through
the season. The greatest amount, 100 percent, appeared in the first
and last two months, and the least, 79 percent, in January. Hyme-
noptera, in the shape of wasps, and a few ants appear to be the
favorite food, as they aggregate over 32 percent of the whole. The
stomach taken in September contained none of them, but in every
other month they are fairly well represented, and with but little
variation until March, when there is a sudden increase, which con-
tinues in April. This is undoubtedly due to the increased numbers of
these insects following the return of warm, dry weather, for the order
is noted for its fondness for warmth and sunshine. Adverse criti-
cism may be made upon this element of the kinglet’s diet, as flying
Hymenoptera are useful agents in the fertilization of flowers, and
some species of plants are dependent upon them for the performance
of this important function. The parasitic species of this order also
were found to some extent in the food of the kinglet, and unques-
tionably many of these are decidedly useful.
In the food of the kinglet, bugs (Hemiptera) are next in impor-
tance. They constitute nearly 26 percent of the diet, and are found
in greatest quantity in the first months of the bird's winter stay, in
September and October, but gradually decrease till spring.
9379—No. 30—07——6
82 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
The following families of Hemiptera were recognized in the stom-
ach contents: Assassin-bugs (Reduviide), lace-bugs (Tingitide),
leaf-bugs (Capside), leaf-hoppers (Jasside), tree-hoppers (Membra-
cide), jumping plant-lice (Psyllide), plant-lice (Aphidide), and
scale-insects (Coccide). Stink-bugs (Pentatomide), which are the
most universally eaten by birds of any Hemiptera, are entirely want-
ing. Evidently it was not lack of opportunity that, prevented the
kinglets from eating the last-named insects, for other birds collected
at the same time and place had partaken of them freely. From the
human point of view it is not strange that birds should reject them,
for to us their odor is vile and their taste nauseous. It will be
noticed that the Hemiptera selected by the kinglet are mostly species
of small size, but happily they are the very ones that are the most
harmful to the interests of man. The tree-hoppers, the leaf-hoppers,
and the jumping plant-lice, when abundant, are pests, and often do
great harm to trees and smaller plants, while the plant-lice and scale-
insects are the worst scourges of the fruit grower—in fact, the preva-
lence of the latter has almost risen to the magnitude of a national
peril. As has been before pointed out, it is these small and seemingly
insignificant birds that most successfully attack and hold in check
these insidious foes of horticulture.
Beetles of various families and species were eaten by the kinglet to
the extent of 13 percent of the season’s food. They belong to species
that are more or less harmful, with the exception of a number of
ladybirds (Coccinellide), which from their habit of feeding on plaut-
lice are eminently useful. The damage done by the destruction of
these useful beetles, however, is small, since they aggregate less
than 2 percent of the whole food. Singularly, nearly all were in
stomachs obtained in February. In this month 8 percent of these
beetles were eaten, while in no other month was so much as 2 percent
taken. Another curious fact is that almost all of these belong to the
genus Scymnus, which is made up of minute black creatures which
one might think would pass unnoticed by birds. On the contrary,
the sinall and insignificant individuals of this genus appear to be
eaten inuch oftener than the larger and more showy species. While
the eating of ladybugs by kinglets or other birds is to be deplored,
it must be acknowledged that little harm is done so long as the num-
bers destroyed are as moderate as the above figures imply.
Of the harmful beetles eaten the weevils are perhaps the most
interesting. One stomach contained 20 individuals, which seems
a large meal in view of the size of the bird. Many of the weevils
belong to the family of engravers (Scolytide), which live under the
bark of trecs and are forest pests. Another beetle found in many
stomachs is Votowus alameda, an insect that lives on trees, but which
does no harm so far as known, One stomach contained the remains of
KINGLETS. 83
100 individuals of this species. Other beetles were found belonging
to about a dozen families, all more or less injurious.
Lepidoptera, both larve (caterpillars) and adult forms (moths
and butterflies) constitute only a small portion of the kinglet’s diet.
They were eaten sparingly in every month but one, but in all aggre-
gate only 3 percent of the whole. While a few caterpillars were eaten,
most of the lepidopterous food consisted of the minute cocoons of
tineid moths, a family of immense size, wide distribution, and destruc-
tive habits. They are largely leaf-miners, and do much damage to
the foliage of fruit and other trees. They are so small that even the
little kinglet can eat a great.many of them at a meal. In only 2
stomachs was anything found that resembled a grasshopper, and in
both the quantity was small and the identification doubtful. Flies
(Diptera) constitute nearly 17 percent of the diet, but are very une-
venly distributed. The greatest amount in one month was in Janu-
ary, 85 percent, all of which was in 7 stomachs collected in the same
place within three days. These 7 stomachs contained an average of
96 percent of dipterous remains. The birds evidently found a
gathering of flies, probably dormant, and filled themselves almost
exclusively with them. Another series of 4, taken at the same place
in February, also had eaten flies to the extent of over 80 percent of
the food. Spiders and pseudoscorpions amount to nearly » percent
of the food, and are taken quite regularly through the season, though
the greater number were eaten in October. These last are curious
minute creatures, the various species of which live under stones, on
the bark of trees, and in old books.
Vegetable food—The vegetable food of the kinglets may be dis-
cussed under three heads—fruit, weed seeds, and miscellaneous vege-
table matter. Fruit amounts to less than 1 percent of the food, prin-
cipally elderberries (Sambucus). Weed seeds are present to the
extent of a little more than one-tenth of 1 percent, and may therefore
be dismissed without further comment. In the miscellaneous vege-
table food two items include nearly the whole—seeds of poison oak
and leaf galls—which together amount to somewhat more than 4
percent. The eating of the seeds of poison oak is not a commendable
habit in any bird, for the seeds are not destroyed, but after the wax
on the outside is digested are either passed through the intestine or
disgorged, and so these harmful plants are disseminated. In many
of the stomachs certain small round bodies were found that were
diagnosed as ‘leaf galls.’ They appear to be galls in the early stage
and are eaten while small and tender.
SUMMARY.
The foregoing discussion of the food of the ruby-crowned kinglet
serves to confirm popular opinion with regard to this bird. As its
84 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
food consists so largely of insects and as these include so small a per-
centage of useful kinds, the kinglet must be classed as one of the
most beneficial of birds. To the horticulturist it is especially valu-
able, as nearly all of its food is obtained from trees. With respect to
the persistency with which it forages among trees, it differs conspicu-
ously from such aboreal species as leave the trees in midsummer to
feed upon grasshoppers.
WESTERN GOLDEN-CROWN IKINGLET.
(Regulis satrapm olivacens, )
Another kinglet, the western golden-crown, occurs sparingly in
winter in some parts of California. Only 9 stomachs have been
examined, but these in the nature of their contents are so similar to
those of the ruby-crown that statements applicable to the latter are
almost certain to apply as well to this species. No vegetable matter
was found in any of the 9 stomachs, and the insects belong to the
same orders and were taken in essentially the same proportions as by
the other species.
Following is a list of beetles which were identified in the stomachs
of the two kinglets:
Coccinella t. californica, Aphodius rugifrous,
Adalia frigid. Diachis auratus.
Newminus pallens, Crepidodera helLrines.
NCYMIHUS HODUTOSUS, Hpitriv parvula,
Hesperobarus abbreviatus. Notorus alameda,
Corticaria ferrugiied, Aathicus vitidulus,
Throscus sericcus, Lpion vespertinun,
Listrus interruptus, Pityophthorus pubipennis,
Beetles were identified as belonging to the following families:
Staphylinidie, Scarabiwidiv.
Coccinellidie. Chrysomelidie.
Monotomide. Tenebrionidee,
Lathridiidie. Anthicidie.
Hlateridiv. Curculionids,
Throscide. Scolytidie.
Lampyridie. Other Rhynchophora.
Milachiidee.
GNATCATCHERS.
(Polioptila spp.)
Gnateatchers are small, active birds of modest colors and unob-
trusive notes. While not conspicuous, they are none the less deserv-
ing of respect and consideration. No complaints have been made
that these busy creatures ever injure fruit or other crops. Their food
GNATCATCHERS, 85
is composed almost exclusively of insects, which they hunt with untir-
ing energy from morning till night. Like the titmice and kinglets,
gnatcatchers are fitted by nature to perform a service which larger
species are unable to accomplish. There are hosts of minute insects,
individually insignificant but collectively a pest, that are too small
to be attacked by ordinary birds and are to be combated by man, if at
all, only at great expense. It is to so deal with such pests that they may
not unduly increase that these tiny birds would seem to be especially
designed. Three species of gnatcatchers live within the limits of the
State of California. Two of them, Polioptila plumbea and P. cali-
fornica, are confined to the southern part, while the third, P. caerulea
obscura, occurs locally throughout the State. The material for a
thorough discussion of the food of these birds is unfortunately not at
hand, but there is enough to show conclusively the nature of the
work they are doing, and to enable us to assign them their proper rank
among the friends and helpers of mankind.
The food of the gnatcatchers is remarkably constant in character
throughout the year, varying but little from month to month. It is
probable that these birds have a preference for a certain diet, and
search till they find it.
Only 30 stomachs of P. ¢. obscura and the same number of P. cali-
fornica have been examined, and their contents were so similar that
they may be treated as from a single species.
Vegetable food—Of the 60 stomachs three only contained any
vegetable food whatever, and in only one did it amount to a respect-
able percentage. This one held 92 percent of seeds of some species
of Rhus; another contained 8 percent of unknown seeds, and the
third a few bits of rubbish, which amounted to only 2 percent of
the whole contents. The total vegetable matter in the 60 stomachs
ageregated less than 2 percent of the entire food.
Animal food—The remainder of the food, over 98 percent, is made
up of beetles, wasps, bugs, and caterpillars, with a few flies, grass-
hoppers, and spiders. Bugs (Hemiptera) constitute more than half
of the whole food, 64 percent. These belong to the families of stink-
bugs (Pentatomida:), shield-bugs (Scutellerida), tree-hoppers (Mem-
bracide), leaf-hoppers (Jasside), and leaf-bugs (Capside), with
perhaps traces of several others. In one stomach were 20 percent of
black olive scales (Saissetiu olew). All of these are harmful to trees
and other plants. Wasps and a few ants (Hymenoptera) are next
in importance as an element of the gnatcatcher's food, and amount
to over 16 percent of the whole. These birds, like the flycatchers,
take much of their prey on the wing, and it is probable that wasps
and small bees are captured in this way. Beetles of several families
were eaten to the extent of over 7 percent of the food, but no decided
86 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
preference for any particular kind is indicated. The only decidedly
useful insects in any of the stomachs were 2 ladybird beetles (Coc-
cinella t. californica), which had been eaten by P. californica. As
this beetle is very abundant in California it is not surprising that
birds should eat a few of them. Caterpillars amount to about 5
percent of the diet of the gnatcatchers. Apparently they are not a
favorite food. Other insects, such as a few flies and grasshoppers,
with some spiders, aggregate 6 percent, and probably are makeshifts,
eaten when nothing more palatable is at hand. .
SUMMARY.
While the foregoing discussion of the food of the gnatcatchers is
based upon a small amount of material, the agreement of the evidence
renders it probable that a much larger quantity would not greatly
change the results. This evidence confirms what has long been sus-
pected, that the gnatcatchers are doing a useful work and should be
carefully protected.
RUSSET-BACK THRUSH.
(Hylocichla ustulata.)
The russet-back thrush abounds in the region about San Francisco
Bay and other parts of the humid coast belt. It remains in this part
of the State from April to November, inclusive. and then moves
farther south for the winter. Its favorite haunts are the bushes and
trees bordering streams, and in these it nests and rears its young.
While the thrush is very fond of fruit its partiality for banks of
streams keeps it from frequenting orchards when they are far from
water. It is most troublesome during the cherry season, at the time
when the young are in the nest. It might be inferred from this that
the nestlings are fed on fruit, but such is not the case to any notice-
able extent. The parent birds eat the fruit themselves, while the
young, as is usual with nestlings, are fed mostly upon insects. The
old birds eat some fruit throughout the season, but do not seem to
attract much attention by their depredations on prunes and the later
fruits. As the thrush, unlike the linnet, is one of the so-called ‘ soft-
billed? birds, its attacks on fruit are limited to the thin-skinned varie-
ties. Probably it can peck holes in ripe cherries; still it is as often
seen on the ground pecking at fallen fruit as attacking the fruit on
the trees. It thus probably confines its depredations upon the later
fruits to such as have already been broken into by linnets or other
stout-billed birds. ;
Be this as it may, the thrush is an efficient destroyer of insects,
and during the eight months of its sojourn in the fruit region a
little more than half of its food consists of harmful insects. In the
GNATCATCHERS. 87
investigation of this bird’s diet 157 stomachs were examined. The
birds came from various points about San Francisco Bay, and on the
coast from Monterey to Santa Cruz, except one migrant which was
taken in the southern part of the State. Only 6 stomachs were
collected in April, 5 in October, and 7 in November. In the remain-
ing four months 139 were taken, and as they are fairly evenly dis-
tributed the results for these months may be looked upon as reason-
ably reliable. Examination of the food shows 52 percent of animal
matter to 48 percent of vegetable.
animal food—The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in
the first and last parts of the season—in fact, the six stomachs col-
lected in April contained no trace of vegetable food. The animal
matter decreases in each month up to September, in which month
only 17 percent was eaten. From this month it increases, and ends
with 62 percent in November. Too much reliance should not be
placed upon the latter figures, as they were obtained from entirely
too few stomachs, and are likely to be modified by the examination of
more material. The animal portion of the food is mostly insects and
spiders, with some earthworms and sowbugs (Oniscus).
Useful beetles (Carabidee, Coccinellide, etc.) amount to less than
3 percent of the food of the year. Most of them are eaten at the
beginning of the season before other insects are common. Other
beetles, all more or less harmful, constitute 11 percent of the year’s
food, and are eaten chiefly the first of the season, decreasing toward
fall but with a slight increase at the end. They are pretty evenly
distributed among the more common families, and no decided prefer-
ence is evident for any. It is probable that the thrush eats any
beetles that come in its way, and does not make special effort to find
a particular kind.
Caterpillars form somewhat more than 8 percent of the food, and
while they are eaten in every month of the thrush’s stay, they are
taken much more freely previous to August. During and after that
month they cease to be an important element of the diet. The average
consumption of the first four months of the season is a trifle over 15
percent. Ants and wasps (Hymenoptera), bugs (Hemiptera), flies
(Diptera), and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) are eaten by the thrush,
although little preference is shown for any one of these except for
Hymenoptera in the shape of ants. These are eaten with remarkable
regularity throughout the season, and form about 16 percent of the
food. This is the largest insect element in the food of the thrush,
and the regularity with which ants are eaten would seem to indicate
that they are highly esteemed and especially sought for.
While these insects do not often make themselves pests by directly
attacking fruits and crops, they aid and abet the work of other insects
in a way which renders them as bad as the worst of those directly
88 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT TNDUSTRY.
attacking crops. Their habit of caring for and protecting plant-lice
is too well known to require extended comment. They take possession
also of the empty burrows of wood-boring larve and extend these
galleries still farther into sound timber. They often throw up
mounds on lawns and in gardens, where it is almost impossible to ex-
terminate them. In houses they frequently are an intolerable nui-
sance, infesting the pantry and spoiling food. The species that are
not offensive in these various ways are mostly of a neutral character
in their economic relations, and their destruction by birds does
neither good nor harm.
Hymenoptera, other than ants (mostly wasps), bugs, flies, and
grasshoppers, with some spiders, amount altogether to 12 percent of
the year’s food, and appear very regularly through the season. Grass-
hoppers, however, are near being conspicuous by their absence, as re-
mains were found in only 4+ of the 157 stomachs. This is rather re-
markable for a bird whose habits are so terrestrial as those of the
thrush. The majority of ground-feeding birds and many arboreal
species feed largely upon grasshoppers. In fact, there is no order
of insects for which insectivorous birds in general show such a decided
preference. The spiders eaten by the thrush belong largely to the
order Phalangida, commonly known as ‘harvest men’ or ‘ daddy-
Jong-legs.’
Vegetable food—The vegetable food of the thrush consists prac-
tically of fruit either wild or cultivated. A few weed seeds were
found in several stomachs, but they amount to only a trace. It is
probable that the greatest harm done by this bird is to the cherry
crop, though undoubtedly it eats the later fruits to some extent. In
May and June the fruit eaten reaches 41 and 38 percent, respectively;
and this probably represents the greatest injury which the bird does,
as most of the fruit was the pulp and skins of cherries. From June
onward seeds of blackberries and raspberries (Rubus) were fre-
quently found in stomachs, but as these berries are both wild and cul-
tivated it is impossible to tell how much came from gardens. One
stomach taken in early June contained seeds of the twin berry (Loni-
cera involucrata). Seeds of the elderberry (Sambucus) were abun-
dant in stomachs taken in the late summer and fall, and indicate that
this fruit constitutes a very considerable portion of the vegetable diet
of the thrush at that season. Besides these were seeds of the pepper
tree, of Solanum (a weed), and one stomach contained fruit of the
coffee berry (hamuus californica). A few seeds of poison oak were
found in two or three stomachs. The greatest amount of fruit was
eaten in September, and reaches a total of over 80. percent, but as the
number of stomachs is not as great as could be desired the result can
scarcely be considered final. Moreover, a large part of this was wild
fruit.
GNATCATCHERS, 89
FOOD OF YOUNG.
Among the stomachs examined were those of 25 nestlings taken in
June and July. Their approximate ages and dates of capture are
given in the following table:
| Age
Brood | Number of be | Dateot
(approxi- =
No. young. mate). taking.
t |
| Days.
1 | Three . 2|/June 8
2 | Four...... 8/ June 8
3 | Three 4|June 15
4; Three 14] June 19
5 | Three 4| July 21
Bef DO warns 8 | July 25
HT SIN Obs iaccnen 14] June 13
8 | Bivelccase 7 | July 16
Taking the collection as a whole their stomachs contained 92.6 per- |
cent animal matter to 7.4 percent of vegetable. Caterpillars agegre-
gate nearly 27 percent and were found in every stomach but 7. No
other element was so abundant. Beetles collectively are next in
importance, with 22 percent. Of these the useful Carabide amount to
7.7 percent and are very irregularly distributed. All the remain-
der are more or less harmful species. Bugs (Hemiptera) ageregate
13.8 percent. Five families of these were identified, viz., stink-bugs,
leat-hoppers, tree-hoppers, shield-bugs, and cicadas. Ants and a few
other Hymenoptera amount to 12 percent, and spiders to exactly the
same. These last were mostly harvest-men or daddy-long-legs (Pha-
langide). A few miscellaneous insects amount to 6 percent, which
makes up the whole of the animal food. Four stomachs of the russet-
back contained remains of grasshoppers and three of these were nest-
lings. Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the extent of
7.7 percent, which is more than three times the amount eaten by the
adults. This is rather singular, for most of these insects are very
hard-shelled and not at all the kind of food usually selected for young
birds. Another interesting point is that all were contained in the
stomachs of broods Nos. 2, 4, and 5. None of the other nestlings’
stomachs held a trace of them. ,
The vegetable food amounts to 6.8 percent of fruit, with less than
1 percent of two or three other things. The fruit was nearly all
either blackberries or raspberries, which were found in 11 stomachs,
with twin berries in 1. One seed of filaree and some rubbish made up
the rest of the vegetable food.
While the above affords a general idea of the food of these nest-
lings as a whole, there are some differences in the food of the different
broods, which may be worthy of notice. The stomachs of broods Nos.
1,2, and 6 contained no vegetable matter, as was the case with one each
of broods 3 and 5. Broods 4, 7, and 8 had all eaten vegetable food,
90 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
but more than four-fifths of the whole was contained in the stomachs
of broods 7 and 8. The average percentage for these two broods was
over 22 percent, or about three times that of the whole. Again,
Hemiptera, in the stomachs of broods Nos. 1 to 7, inclusive, amount
to an average of less than + percent, but in brood No. 8 the average
per stomach is over 53 percent of the food. Spiders were found in
nearly every stomach of broods 1 to 4, while the other four broods
contained very few. These facts indicate that birds exercise com-
paratively little choice as to the exact nature of their food, but take
that which is nearest to hand. With a brood of hungry young inces-
santly clamoring for supplies little opportunity is afforded the busy
parents to select precisely the kind of insects best adapted to the
wants of the young. Nature teaches that insect food and not vege-
table is needed and the gaping mouths are filled with the nearest,
obtainable supply.
In addition to the examination of stomachs of nestling thrushes
field observations were made on the feeding of the young by the par-
ent birds. Two nests of this species in the town of Hayward, Cal.,
were observed during several days in June and July, 1901. Each
nest was watched for two one-hour periods on as many days as pos-
sible, and the number of times that the young were fed was carefully
noted.
It may be said, to begin with, that the stomachs of young birds are
kept constantly full during the hours of daylight.
Nest No. 1 was situated on a tree on the bank of a small creek on
the edge of an orchard. When first observed, there were three young
in the nest, apparently about five days old. This nest was watched
for one hour from 9.40 a. m. on June 30, and the young were fed
six times, but, as both parent birds came to the nest once with food
in their beaks and went away without feeding the young, it is prob-
able that they were not quite satisfied as to the intentions of the
observer. At 4.25 p.m. of the same day another hour was spent in
watching the nest, and the young were fed 11 times. On July 1,
beginning at 8.30 a. m., 7 feedings occurred in one hour. This nest
was not again watched until July 3,at 840.a.m., when the young
were fed 8 tines during the hour. In the afternoon of the same day,
beginning at 3 o’clock, 12 feedings were observed in one hour. The
last observation of this nest was made on July 5, beginning at 9 a. m.
In an hour 13 visits with food were noted. In the case of this brood
there were 57 feedings in six hours, or an average of 94 feedings per
hour. As there were three young, each one must have been fed a lit-
tle more than three times per hour.
Nest No. 2 also contained three young, but they were only about
2 days old when first visited. The first observation was on June 80,
GNATCATCHERS, 91
at 3.20 p. m., and the following hour the young were fed 8 times,
and as the weather was cold the mother bird spent a number of min-
utes on the nest warming the nestlings. On July 1 another hour was
spent in watching the nest, beginning at 9.30 a. m., and only 4 feed-
ings were observed. It was, however, a cold, windy morning, and
one or other of the parent birds remained on the nest all the time,
leaving only when the mate brought food and took its turn brooding.
The necessity for keeping the nestlings warm evidently prevented the
parents from feeding them as often as customary. On the morning
of July 38, although the weather was still rather cool, the birds
seemed to be making up for the scanty feeding of the previous days,
for they were observed to feed the young 15 times in an hour, begin-
ning at 9.40 a. m., although they still took turns in warming the
young for a few minutes at atime. In the afternoon of the same day,
beginning at 4 o’clock, 8 feedings were noted in an hour. On July 5,
beginning at 10 a. m., the parents were seen to feed the nestlings no
fewer than 18 times, although one of them spent several minutes
upon the nest three times during the hour. In the afternoon of that
day 11 feedings were noted, in the hour beginning at 3.30, and 3
times one of the parents brooded the young, remaining once for six
minutes. The next observation on this nest was made on July 6,
during the hour from 7.50 a. m., and 12 feedings were noted. On
July 7 the last observation was made, beginning at 3.20 p. m., and 11
feedings were noted. In this case there were 87 feedings in eight
hours, or an average of nearly 11 per hour.
Considering both nests together, as each had the same number of
young, we have 144 feedings in fourteen hours. Now at this time of
year there are just about fourteen hours of available daylight, so that
144 feedings may be considered as an average day’s work for a pair
of parent birds, and as signifying the destruction of at least 144
insects, probably several times that number. Each of the three
young must have been fed 48 times, which means that each stomach
was filled to its full capacity several times during the day, another
illustration of the fact that the digestion and assimilation of birds,
especially of young ones, is constant and very rapid. This is further
shown by the fact that when attempts have been made to raise young
birds the experiments in most cases have failed because the nestlings
were not fed often enough and actually starved to death. Young
birds thrive best when fed a small quantity of food at short intervals
rather than greater quantities at longer periods.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing it appears that although this thrush eats con-
siderable fruit it is not a pest to the fruit grower. Cherries seem to
92 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
be the only kind eaten to any considerable extent, and in the later
summer wild fruit forms a large part of its vegetable diet. This
thrush does not aid in the destruction of the seeds of noxious weeds.
In its insect diet the russet-back thrush is almost wholly beneficial,
as it eats but few predaceous beetles or other useful insects. As
young thrushes are fed almost exclusively upon insects, and as they
eat almost continuously from morning till night, they must destroy
an enormous number of these harmful creatures. From our present
knowledge of its food and general habits, the russet-back thrush must
be considered as one of our positively beneficial birds.
HERMIT THRUSH.
(Hylocichta guttata.)
The hermit thrush occurs in the valley and foothill parts of Cali-
fornia only as a winter visitant. Thus it can destroy no fruit, except
perhaps olives, and thus far no complaints have been made against
the species in this respect. Although the bird has not yet attracted
attention by depredations upon fruit, it may be well, nevertheless,
to glance at its food habits as indicated by the contents of 68 stomachs.
These were mostly taken in or about the Bay region, while a few
came from the southern part of the State. Examination of the con-
tents of these stomachs shows animal matter to the extent of 56
percent. and vegetable 44 percent. The proportion of the’ two
elements varies little in the different months.
_lnimal food—Hymenoptera, mestly ants, constitute the largest
item of the insect food. They amount to 2+ percent, and appear to
be eaten regularly in every month. This record is better than that
of the russet-back. Caterpillars come next in importance, and form
10 percent of the food. They seem to be eaten rather more freely
in February and March than in other months, though they are taken
at all times of year. Predatory beetles (Carabidw) are noticeable by
their absence, as only a few remains of them appear. Beetles of other
families, all harmful species, ferm 11 percent of the food. Weevils,
or snout-beetles (Rhynchophora), constitute more than two-thirds
of these, which would seem to indicate that they are a favorite food.
When we consider that the carabids live on the ground, and are the
most abundant and most. easily obtained of any of the common
beetles, and note how few of them the hermit thrush eats, while on
the other hand it cats many snout-beetles, which, living to a great
extent on trees, are generally much more difficult to find, we are
forced to the conclusion that the latter are a preferred food, and that
they are purposely sought for. Other insects, with some spiders and
a few miscellaneous articles of diet (Oniscus), amount to about 12
WESTERN ROBIN. 93
percent. As in the case of the russet-back thrush, one stomach of the
hermit contained the bones of a salamander.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food is made up of two principal
components—fruit amd seeds. The former amounts to 29 percent
of the whole, and is composed of wild species, or of old fruit left on
trees and vines. A few stomachs contained seeds of raspberries,
which, of course, must have been old, dried-up fruit. Seeds of the
pepper tree and mistletoe were the most abundant and, with some
unidentifiable pulp and skins, make up the complement of fruit. The
hermit thrush eats more seeds than the russet-back, but does not
stand high as a weed destroyer. Seeds of all kinds amount to 14
percent of the food, but only a few are usually reckoned as weed seeds.
The most abundant seed was poison oak (Rhus diversiloba), which
was found in a number of stomachs. While this plant is not usually
classed among weeds, it is really a weed of the worst description,
since it is out of place no matter where it is. It is unfortunate that
birds in eating the seeds of this plant do not destroy them, but only
aid-in their dissemination.
SUMMARY.
Ou the whole, the food of the hermit thrush is remarkably free
from useful products, destruction of which is a loss to mankind. The
worst-that can be said of the bird is that it eats and scatters the seed
of poison oak, but.it does not do this to a marked degree.
WESTERN ROBIN.
(Meruta migratoria propingiua.)
In most of the valleys of California the robin is a winter resident
only, and would be of little economic importance did it not possess
a voracious appetite, the satisfaction of which occasionally leads to
lamentable results. Of its summer food we know almost nothing,
except what may be inferred from its list of edibles while in the
valleys, and by comparison with the diet of its eastern relative. The
two birds are so nearly alike that probably in the same environment
they would eat practically the same things.
In investigating the food of the western robin 74 stomachs were
examined. They were taken in every month from September to
June, inclusive, except May. This number is entirely too small to be
used as a basis for final conclusions, but it suffices to give a hint as to
the differences, if any there be, between the food of the eastern and
western races. Only one stomach was taken in each of the months of
September, October, and June. The others are well distributed
through the remaining months. Discarding returns from the three
94 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
months mentioned, 71 stomachs remain, from which a fairly reliable
idea of the winter food of the robin in California may be obtained.
In the first examination we find 40 percent of animal food to 60
of vegetable. The food of eastern robins for the whole year con-
tains 42 percent of animal matter to 58 percent of vegetable, and
during the six months beginning on November 1 the amounts are:
Animal 35 percent and vegetable 64 percent. If, however, our study
is restricted to the three winter months, we find that the eastern robin
eats 18 percent of animal food and 82 percent of vegetable, while
for the same period the western one consumes 22 percent animal
and 78 percent vegetable. These comparisons do not indicate essen-
tial differences in the food of the two birds. The western bird eats
more insects during the winter months because on the west. coast
insects are more abundant and more easily obtained at that season
than in the East. Confining attention, however, to the six months
beginning with November, the eastern bird eats a greater percentage
of insects. It is almost certain that if the material were at hand to
illustrate the food of the western robin during the remainder of
the year, the bird would be found to eat a much larger percentage
of insects than in the six months covered by this investigation.
elnimal food.—Beetles of various families are the largest item of
animal food. The greater number were eaten in April, when they
amount to over 54 percent of the whole food for the month. They
were distributed among several families, but the most conspicuous
were the snout-beetles, or weevils, which aggregated 25 percent.
This is a favorable showing for the robin, for these beetles are among
the most harmful insects with which the fruit growers and farmers
have to contend. The average percentage of beetles for the whole
six months is about 13 percent of the food. Caterpillars are next in
order of abundance and amount to over 4 percent. The remainder of
the animal food is nade up of various insects, of which no order
claims preeminence, and of a few angleworms.
Vegetable food.—The bulk of the vegetable food from November
onward is cultivated fruit. After this month it gradually falls off,
and very little was found in stomachs collected in March and April.
With the exception of olives, the bird can obtain no fruit of value
after the Ist of November, and as olives were not identified in any of
the stomachs it is probable that inmost of the fruit consumed was
worthless, having been left after the crop was gathered. The follow-
ing fruits were identified: Grapes in 5 stomachs, figs in 3, prunes in
2, pear, apple, and blackberries in 1 each. Of wild fruit, pepper ber-
ries were found in 17 stomachs, mistletoe berries in 2, and fruit not
positively identified in 11. Pepper berries evidently are the favorite,
since not only were they found in the greater number of stomachs,
but 1 stomach contained 2+ and another 28 of these berries, Two
WESTERN ROBIN. 95
stomachs contained wheat and 3 had weed seeds, but dry seeds are evi-
dently not favorite food with the robin.
Destruction of olives—From the foregoing the robin would not
appear to do much damage, or at least not more than is amply paid
for by the insects it destroys. But, unfortunately, more is to be said
about its food habits, which does not redound so much to its credit.
In certain years when their customary food is scarce, robins appear
in the valleys in immense numbers, and wherever there are olives
they eat them so eagerly and persistently that the loss is often serious
and occasionally disastrous. Sometimes, indeed, it is only by the
most strenuous efforts, with considerable outlay of labor and money,
that any part of the crop can be saved. Fortunately, such extensive
damage is not done every year, although here and there the olive
crop may suffer.
There is probably no more striking example of exceptional and
intermittent damage to fruit by birds than an instance which occurred
in the winter of 1900-1901. In that year the olive orchards in
various parts of California were invaded by immense numbers of
robins, which ate the fruit and in some instances destroyed the whole
crop. In orchards where persistent effort was made to destroy and
drive them away they still ruined from one-fourth to one-half of the
yield. Olive orchards in Santa Clara Valley especially were afflicted.
Mr. Paul Masson, who owns two orchards near Saratoga, as quoted
by the San Jose Mercury of January 17, 1901, says:
In my largest orchard of about 500 trees adjoining a larger orchard of about
50 acres on the El Quito farm, which is owned by E. E. Goodrich, are thousands
of robins, which are destroying all the fruit on the trees. About two months
ago I estimated that my trees would yield about 4 tons of olives, but Sunday,
when I visited my orchard, I found the fruit would not be worth picRing.
I killed some of the robins, and upon examination found as many as five or
six whole olives in the crop of each bird. Besides those which the bird had
swallowed whole, many olives are pecked so that they are spoiled for market.
Sunday there were not less than 50,000 robins on my place, and they are equally
as plentiful on FE] Quito farm.
Mr. Edward E. Goodrich, the owner of El Quito farm and olive
orchard, quoted by the same authority, says:
The so-called robin is a destructive pest to an olive orchard. <A crop can not
be saved when the migration of the robin corresponds exactly with the maturity
of the olive, as it does this year, except by immediate picking, which is prac-
tically impossible, or by shooting so constantly as to prevent steady consump-
tion. * * * In 1898 my crop was 130 tons, and should have made about
4,000 gallons of oi]. Owing to the lack of rain the result was about 2,750 gal-
lons, of the value of $11,000. Now, that crop could have been wiped out in ten
days by robins if they had been here as they were this season and no shooting
had been done. So far as my foreman could estimate, before the birds
descended upon the place, he placed the crop at a probable 3,000 gallons, which
means when sold from $12,000 to $16,000, according to prices, and that would
have been utterly destroyed but for the constant shooting the last ten days.
96 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
As it was, Mr. Goodrich placed his loss on the olive crop through
the devastations of the robins at 25 percent of the whole, or about
$5,000, while his foreman, in an interview with the writer, estimated
the loss at 50 percent. He stated also that robins were so numerous
that he killed 7 in a tree at a single shot.
The San Jose Mercury also states:
A representative of the Mercury visited the E] Quito olive orchard to see what
the facts were in this matter. He found a force of men picking the fruit as
rapidly as possible, and he also saw thousands upon thousands of rcbins doing
the same thing. On his way out he occasionally saw a single bird on the fence
or ina prune tree, but when he reached El Quito the sky was streaked with
robins flitting about and having a gala time of it. Men were scattered about
through the orchard with guns, and every few minutes the report of one of
these would set the robins to flying, but in an instant they would settle down
ugain and resume their feast.
Hon. Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Barbara, one of the largest olive
growers on the Pacific coast, in a letter dated January 25, 1901, says:
The robin is a terrible pest to olives. ‘The birds do not always appear to come
to the coast. My first experience was some fifteen years ago. The olives were
late in ripening. Iwas as late as March making oil. The robins appeared to come
in by the thousands. My last orchard that year was about one-half mile in length.
The pickers were at one end. JI had a man with a gun at the other, but they
would attack the middle, and when the gunner would reach them they would
fly to the end he left. This year they have been particularly bad. My boys
reported that the birds, mostly robins, picked more olives than they could. The
foreman of the pickers told me that he had knocked from a tree one-quarter of
a sack and went to dinner; when he returned not an olive was on the ground.
T know that on the ground in one orchard where the rain had caused to fall as
many olives as would fill a bushel basket, in a week not one would be seen. The
robins do not seem to be able to pick the olives so rapidly from the trees, but
peck at those that are commencing to dry, knock them to the ground, then get
them. The birds at this writing are in all my orchards by the thousands. They
do not appear every year. It has been my theory that the native berries in the
Sierra some years are not in sufficient quantities for food.
Tn the last sentence Mr. Cooper has probably suggested the true
cause of the trouble. There is a crop of olives every year and the
number of robins fluctuates little, but they rarely attack olives because
usually their native food abounds. Where this fails the hungry
birds shift about until they find a substitute.
SUMMARY.
With the exception of such sporadic cases as the above, the food
habits of the robin are for the most part of a beneficial, or at least
harmless, character, In the eastern part of the country very little
damage by the robin is reported, though it is one of the most abundant
species. This is probably largely owing to the plentifulness of wild
fruits throughout the season. The trouble in California is that the
robins from an extensive region concentrate into a comparatively
WESTERN BLUEBIRD. 97
small area and, finding an abundant supply of palatable food, feed
upon olives to the exclusion of all other food.
Were the hills and canyons of California as well supplied with wild
berries as are the corresponding places in the Appalachian region,
it is doubtful if such devastations of the olive crop would ever occur.
Since failure of the natural food supply of the robin is only occa-
sional and can not be anticipated in advance, no direct safeguards
against the bird’s inroads are possible, though the planting of pepper
and other berry-bearing trees about the orchards would materially
aid in protecting the olive crop. The prompt and unsparing use
of the shotgun when the emergency occurs, even though it seems to be
the only practicable method to save the crop, is much to be deprecated,
since the destruction of robins, which in the main are useful birds,
is a loss to the community.
WESTERN BLUEBIRD.
(Sialia mexicanus occidentalis.)
The western bluebird has the same gentle, quiet demeanor that
characterizes its relative of the Eastern States. It has not yet, per-
haps, become quite so domestic as that species, but still is much in-
clined. to frequent orchards and the vicinity of farm buildings. .
While the eastern bluebird usually nests either in a hole of an orchard
tree or in the box specially provided for its use, the western species
has not yet fully abandoned its habit of utilizing forest trees as nest-
ing sites, and often may be found in lonely canyons or among the
hills far from the abodes of man. The orchards of California
as yet are hardly old enough to offer many hollow trees as nesting
places of the kind so dear to the heart of our gentle friend. There
is no reasonable doubt that in time the western species will become
as domestic as the eastern one. A nest was found by the writer in a
hollow tree in the home orchard of a ranch, only a few rods from the
house. It contained six young, which would indicate that the bird
is a prolific breeder, in this respect also resembling the eastern
species.
The western bluebird is less migratory than the eastern and does
not entirely desert the United States in winter; so its good work is
continuous. As insects are active in California in every month the
bird is able to support life even if there is no other food. More-
over, the insects eaten in winter count more in the reduction of these
pests than do those taken after the spring broods are out. Insects
that live through the winter are the stock by which. the species is
perpetuated, and the destruction of a few at this time is equivalent
to the death in summer of hundreds or thousands.
' 9379—No. 30—07——7
98 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
The food of the bluebird consists of elements whose consumption
is almost wholly a benefit to the farmer. Four-fifths of it is insects;
only a small portion of these are useful, and these to a limited extent.
In the investigation of the food of the bluebird 187 stomachs were
examined. This number is not so large as could be desired, and,
moreover, was rather irregularly distributed over the year. Only
one stomach was obtained in May, and only one in April, while the
number for several other months are too few. Geographically they
fairly well represent the fruit-growing regions of the State from as
far south as San Bernardino northward to Santa Rosa. The food
found in the stomachs consists of animal matter, 82 percent; vege-
table, 18 percent.
Animal food—Of the animal portion a little less than 12 percent
consists of predaceous beetles (Carabidee), which are usually reck-
oned as useful. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule,
and since most of the species of this family are wonderfully abun-
dant it is not probable that the bluebird does much harm by eating
them. It is believed, moreover, that this record of Carabide is above
the normal, for the one bird taken in April had eaten 90 percent of
these beetles, thereby raising the average of the whole. In August,
on the other hand, not one of the five birds examined had eaten a
carabid. Had these months been omitted from the reckoning the
average would have been reduced to about one-third of the present
figure, which is probably much nearer the truth.
Other beetles amount to over 17 percent of the food, and were
distributed among about a dozen families, all of them harmful, except
three or four ladybirds (Coccinellide), which are useful.
Caterpillars evidently are a favorite food, and probably are eaten
in every month, though evidence is wanting for April and May.
They amount to over 17 percent of the year’s food. Few of these
insects are eaten in spring and early summer, many in fall and winter.
As practically all caterpillars are harmful, this item of diet counts
entirely in the bird’s favor.
Grasshoppers and crickets, mostly the former, were eaten in every
month except April, but a greater number of stomachs would prob-
ably give a different result. They amount to a little less than 24
percent of the year’s food. They appear in the stomachs of western
birds at a somewhat earlier date than in those of eastern species.
In the Atlantic and Central States, August is preeminently the season
of grasshoppers, and in that month they constitute the principal
arlicle of diet of many species of birds. The western bluebird eats
grasshoppers in March to the extent of about 11 percent of its food.
In June they amount to over 88 percent, and in July reach a maximum
of nearly 49 percent, or nearly half of all that it eats. In September
they amount to 40 percent, but decrease rapidly from that time.
WESTERN BLUEBIRD. 99
Bees and wasps (Hymenoptera) are not largely eaten by the blue-
bird, and flies scarcely at all, as the aggregate for the year amounts
_to only four-tenths of 1 percent.
In the summer bugs (Hemiptera) are eaten to a moderate extent.
The species belong mostly to the family of ‘soldier bugs’ (Penta-
tomide) or, as they are sometimes called, ‘ stink-bugs,’ for they have
a vile odor and when taken into the mouth with a berry are not agree-
able to human taste. The total percentage of wasps, flies, bugs, and a
few other insects is a little less than 10 percent of the whole food.
Spiders are eaten to some extent throughout the year, but never in
great numbers. The greatest number are taken in February, about 6
percent. The total average for the year is 2 percent. One stomach
contained the lingual ribbon of a snail.
Vegetable food—The bluebird asks practically nothing of man in
the way of vegetable food. It is evident that it is not a lover of seeds,
as is the linnet, and with abundance of them at hand, eats few or none.
In 2 stomachs several small unknown seeds were found, which may
have been swallowed accidentally. Not a kernel of grain had been
eaten. Fruit constitutes nearly the whole vegetable portion of the
food, and was distributed as follows: Elderberries (Sambucus) in 19
stomachs; grapes in 12 stomachs, all in the month of October or later;
blackberries or raspberries (Rubus) identified in 4 stomachs; pepper
fruits in 2 stomachs; figs in 1 and mistletoe berries in 1. Besides
these 9 stomachs contained pulp or skins that could be identified only
as fruit. From this it appears that elderberries are the favorite fruit
of the bluebird. Fortunately these are nearly always to be had in
California. Most of the grapes eaten probably were waste fruit, as
many of them were consumed in December and other winter months.
FOOD OF YOUNG.
Among the stomachs examined were those of several nestlings about
a week old. They were of interest as showing how large a proportion
of animal food is given to the young. In one brood of six the only
vegetable food found was a single piece of plant stem, which was
probably given accidentally with other food, and should properly be
classed as rubbish. The real food consists of grasshoppers and
crickets 90 percent, beetles 3 percent, and the remainder made up of
bugs, caterpillars, and spiders. In another brood of four, grass-
hoppers and crickets constituted 97.5 percent of the food, and 1
stomach contained nothing else. The remains of 11 grasshoppers
were found in one of these stomachs, and 10 grasshoppers, a cricket.
and a beetle in another. The only vegetable matter found in these
4 stomachs was a single seed of Polygonum.
Besides the stomachs of the western bluebird discussed above, 14
100 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
stomachs of the Arctic bluebird (Stalia arctica) were obtained.
They were taken in fall and winter, and, while so small a number is
not sufficient for positive conclusions, it may be said that the charac-
ter of the food closely resembles that of the other species in the same
months.
The two species eat about the same proportion of animal and vege-
table food; the animal part consists of the same orders of insects,
while the vegetable part is made up of the same varieties of fruit.
In short, it may be said that if there are important differences in the
food habits of the two birds the evidence at hand fails to establish
the fact.
SUMMARY.
It seems scarcely necessary to comment on the foregoing statements
with regard to the bluebird’s diet in its economic relations. That the
bird is an eminently useful species is so patent that it hardly needs to
be pointed out. Whatever harm fruit growers have suffered from
birds, none of it can be laid at the door of the bluebird.
List of insects identified in stomachs of bluebirds:
COLEOPTERA.
Coccinella t. californica. Blapstinus sulcatus.
Hippodamia couvergens, Blapstinus pulverulentus,
Polycaon stoutii. Rhigopsis effracta.
Aphodius rugifrons, Balaninus sp.
Blapstinus dilatatus, Sitones sp.
HEMIPTERA.
Saissetia olew, Ninea diadema,
HYMENOPTERA.
Afessor andrei (ant).
Insects also were identified as belonging to the following families:
COLEOPTERA.
Carabidm. Ptinidxr.
Staphylinidee. Scarabeeidee.
Coceinellidie. Cerumbycidee,
Histeridiv. Chrysomelids.
FElateridie. Tenebrionide.
Buprestidie, Ihynchophora (superfamily).
Liunpyride,
HEMIPTERA.
Reduviida, Corimelenide.
Capsidie. Scutelleridie,
Lygividie. Jasside.
Pentatomidie. Coccidie,
O
AySUEU AUBUSL S, 1910.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BIOLOGICAL SURVEY— BULLETIN No. 34
¢. HART MERRIAM, Chief
BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA
IN RELATION TO THE
FRUIT INDUSTRY
PART II
By F. E. L. BEAL
Assistant, Biological Survey
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
. 1910
Issued August 8, 1910.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—BULLETIN No. 34
C. HART MERRIAM, Chief
BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA
IN RELATION TO THE
FRUIT INDUSTRY
PART II
By F. E. L. BEAL
Assistant, Biological Survey
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1910
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U.S. DeparTMENT oF AGRICULTURE,
BroLoeicaL SuRVEY,
Washington, D. C., February 25, 1910.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith for publication as
Bulletin No. 34 of the Biological Survey, Part II of the Birds of Cali-
fornia in Relation to the Fruit Industry, by Prof. F. E. L. Beal.
This, the final part of the report, treats of some of the most important
California birds from the standpoint of the orchardist and the farmer.
Careful study of the food habits of birds that frequent orchards and
their vicinity shows that most of the species are beneficial, and that
without their aid the difficulty and expense of raising fruit would be
enormously increased; still a few species under certain circumstances
are harmful and need to be held in check.
Respectfully, — i
. Harr Merriam,
Chief, Biological Survey.
Hon. James WI1son,
: Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
Introduction sja2. vs xaeieates ees s pategedaag oees cwhonkidasuendeeoocerss sees
California quails 52). yhctiinsed ss saeathdhiaes we sowamecanwewnaakins ees esie eee
Woodpecker family. vic. cnectt Sacra ajete ne mecca aan wb e eee oe oe
Hairy wood peckeiins.cgsatasv.c Wiedaeebavia a xy cite Me toes hes ah 8 ay
Downy woodpeckers ascsenuc ess satey dice gue oan dee ek ceieiieled oe ok eae+ ass
Nuttall woodpecker.......2. 2.220.220 20200 e cece ce eee ee ee cece eee
Red-breasted sapsucker.........---..2 200.22 c cece eee ee eee eee eee eens
California woodpecker.........- 22.02.2220 2-002 e eee cece e ee eee eee ee eee
Red-shatted filer jasc dacesisss itttudieeeue sn alne ped eae eared eoose
Other woodpeckers. s2c.ciea eee ody uw ty neds weed deee aie ee ee
Blyeatcherfamily.sssi ook we ek eee ae ys ee ott CU tes
Ash-throated flycatcher.........2.2.2.0.02-0000- 0-02 c cece e eee eee eee eee
ATR NAS RIDE Dit doe cect cnyaieto aactanensio eeetetng arecee Geena emieal aes eee
Cassin kinebird «2 2c sccc22 0202 sec aceceseaasa eee ed seen en cee seme
Say phoeb Gin ses seas teeta w= eee yaaenue Gres pars neds yreGeeataws
Black: phoebe. oo... sev lsgn nce son tec aanssee se oes ean beeeeememeeee eles
‘Western-wodd peweess5.mcccscs arene dcaethec dest cea ueeaw acces a
Western Ay Catch Ofc sean ont di aamibenilagses ates e ascdaemae ei wemees
Other Aycateh Gta waa, isie descsicielsti cs icine ereumemes nha eee teu cincassene
Horned Vatlee os. ia eink ood acted eee eee asian debe ae oe ae een eee
Jay familys sek koe hte oe a cia eho Wa pee auetitan nays iene ened
Steller jay. seed ok. <aectd tudes ioe Can eeGeeee tec ace spel SSS
California Jaye cocccccccntedeges aceae ices ye neds te Rem ea Rae iNetls
Blackbird, oriole, and meadowlark family........--- Cue tens pase awatane
Bicolored red wing scuce2scadigseves ies Ss apeann dae se Dene d ee eR eS Ee
Other'red wings... 62.) cednce vcesee vice sete eee nes oh eel eee ee
Brewer blackbird ..2..0<i4 c.casececnd ea cageed nies ee ee were e waite
Western meadowlark.........--- PU Ed dee Mtesdeta o Siewtnaaeeease Sons paeen eas
Bullock oriole.....,....2..-----22eece cece ee eee rete eee ee eee seeeeccne
Spantowy funnily. sk chee cade nda euen aaasews ona Seer eeEe eee
Willow goldfinch.....-........22-.22- 2222 ce ete eet t eee cce eet tree tts
Green-backed goldfinch............-2-------22-+0eeectee ester ttte ee
Intermediate and Nuttall sparrows ....-.----,------------+cr rt rere
Golden-crowned sparrow...-..------------22eeccteeee ec eetee entrees
Western chipping sparrow.....----------------+e eect eeeececctett trees
Western snowbird.......-.--22-------eee eee eete cece ccc eteeeeteesercttte
Western song sparrow....-------2222000-00cc eee e eee e ee eceeetetsts sree
Spotted towhee_.... 2... ..eeeeee ee eee cece ee ecceee eter ener reer teenees
California towhee.......---------+- 2-22 - eee e eect eer eres crete
Black-headed grosbeak.......-------+---00:eeeeeeeeeeeeetertstss
[IELUSTRATIONS.
California quail .......
. Arkansas kingbird...--.
California jay.--..-.--.
. Brewer blackbird.-.-..
. Bullock oriole.........
. Green-backed goldfinch
6
Page.
Frontispiece.
32
50
60
68
74
BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA IN RELATION TO THE FRUIT
INDUSTRY—PART IL.
INTRODUCTION.
The first part of the report on Birds of California in Relation to the
Fruit Industry was published in 1907. In addition to the linnet or
house finch, which has attracted wide attention and is the subject of
much complaint, 37 other species were discussed. In the present
and concluding part, the food habits of 32 additional species are
treated. Among them are some of the most important birds of the
State, regarded from the standpoint of the farmer and fruit grower.
The aim has been to collect all data possible on the food of the sev-
eral species, to consider the facts impartially, and to render a just
verdict as to the birds’ economic relations.
All the birds whose food habits are discussed have direct relations
with husbandry. It is true that many of them have not been charged
with the destruction or injury of fruit or any other farm products.
Almost all, however, destroy great numbers of harmful insects or
devour seeds of noxious weeds; hence they are important econom-
ically.
A large part of the present report consists of statements concerning
the food actually found in the stomachs of the birds. In this connec-
tion it should be borne in mind that by far the greater number of stom-
achs used in this investigation were collected in the more thickly set-
tled and highly cultivated parts of the State, so that they probably
contain a larger proportion of the products of husbandry than would
a series of stomachs taken at random from all parts of the range of
each species. It goes without saying that fruit and grain can be
eaten only by such birds as have access to those products, while birds
living in uncultivated places must subsist upon the fruits of nature.
Some California birds show a marked preference for oats, but in
this State the presence of oats in a bird’s stomach does not necessarily
indicate that cultivated oats have been eaten, for wild oats cover
hundreds of thousands of acres, and in the cultivated areas grow
almost everywhere, affording a supply of food for many birds.
Besides wild oats, the crop of volunteer oats that succeeds the cul-
tivated crop is abundant and is to be found wherever this grain is
7
8 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
grown. In fact, in California the eating of oats can not as a rule be
counted against a bird.
In no State in the Union is an accurate knowledge of the relations
of birds to agriculture more important than in California. Climate
and soil combine to make California an important grain and fruit pro-
ducing State. The acreage already devoted to agriculture is large and
is likely to increase for decades to come, as population increases and
as new cultural methods are developed and irrigation is extended.
Insects that now attract little attention are likely to increase and
become serious pests. Certain birds formerly accustomed to a diet
consisting partly of wild fruits, the supply of which is limited and
likely to become smaller, will probably invade orchards and injure
cultivated fruit. Hence it is worth while for the farmer and orchard-
ist to learn as much as possible of the food of the birds that harbor
near his premises, that he may know how much good each species
does and how much harm, and so be enabled to strike a fair balance.
Some birds, like the swallows, swifts, wrens, and chickadees, are
so strictly insectivorous that they are exceedingly beneficial. All
they require at the hands of man in return for their services is pro-
tection. Others at some time of the year injure crops, though the
damage by many is exceedingly small. Be the loss what it may,
however, if a given species by its insectivorous habits prevents much
greater destruction than it inflicts, the farmer should be willing to
bear the loss for the sake of the greater gain.
Few birds are always and everywhere so seriously destructive that
their extermination can be urged on sound economic principles.
Only four of the species common in California can be regarded as of
doubtful utility: These are the linnet, California jay, Steller jay, and
redbreasted sapsucker. When the known methods of protecting
fruit have been exhausted, or can not be employed profitably, then
a reasonable reduction of the numbers of the offending birds is per-
missible. But the more the food habits of birds are studied the
more evident is the fact that with a normal distribution of species
and a fair supply of natural food, the damage to agricultural products
by birds is small compared with the benefit.
A reasonable way of viewing the relation of birds to the farmer is
to consider birds as servants, employed to destroy weeds and insects.
In return for this service they should be protected, and such as need
it should receive a fair equivalent in the shape of fruit and small
grain. Nothing can be more certain than that, except in a few cases,
any farmer who is willing to pay the toll collected by birds for actual
services rendered will be vastly benefited. In the long run, no part
of the capital invested in farm or orchard is more certain to pay big
interest than the small sum required for the care and protection of
birds.
CALIFORNIA QUAIL. 9
CALIFORNIA QUAIL.
(Lophortyx californicus and vallicola.)
The California quail (see frontispiece) is common and generally
distributed over the State west of the Sierra, except at the higher
altitudes, and is especially abundant in the fruit-raising sections.
Like the bobwhite of the East, this quail never goes far from cover,
and it delights to dwell on unimproved land where trees and chap-
arral alternate with small areas of open ground. In settled regions
it is somewhat domestic in habits and soon becomes accustomed to
living in orchards, gardens, and cultivated grounds. The writer has
seen a female. sitting upon her eggs in a garden within 30 feet of a
house, between which and the nest carriages and foot passengers
passed many times each day. In winter a covey frequently feeds
with the farmer’s chickens, and if not disturbed will continue to do
so until pairing time.
The natural food of the quail consists of the seeds of that vast
group of plants known as weeds, with a little foliage of the same,
especially in winter, when the leaves are young and tender. Con-
sidering how small is the amount of fruit usually found in the stomach
of this bird, it is a surprise to learn that it sometimes does serious
damage to vineyards. Investigation, however, shows that, as in
most other similar cases, the injury results only when too many
birds gather in a limited area. Nearly all the complaints against
the quail for eating fruit are that it visits vineyards in immense
numbers and eats grapes. When thousands visit a vineyard, even if
only occasionally, and each bird eats or spoils at least. one grape, the
result is disastrous.
Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey, writing of the foothills of San Diego
County, says:
Tn 1889 quail were so numerous that the dust of the roads was printed with their
tracks, and it was an everyday matter to have them start out of the brush and run
ahead of the horses quite unconcernedly, pattering along in their stiff, prim way,
with their topknots thrown forward over their beaks. In fact, the quail were so
abundant as to be a pest. For several years great flocks of them came down the
canyons to Major Merriam’s vineyard, where they destroyed annually from 20 to 30
tons of fruit. In one season, July to October, 1891, 130 dozen were trapped on his
ranch. The result of this wholesale destruction was manifest when I returned to
the valley in 1894. The birds were then rarely seen on the roads and seldom
flushed in riding about the valley.¢
Another observer states that he once saw a flock of about a thou-
sand quail eating Zinfandel grapes in a vineyard in the central part
of the State, and another says that in southern California he ee
seen as many as 5,000 feeding upon Muscat grapes. In the writer's
interviews with California fruit growers, only one mentioned the quail
aAuk, XIII, p. 116, 1896.
10 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
as harmful. His ranch was situated along the hills on the side of a
narrow valley, adjacent to wild grazing land with much chaparral
and forest, among which the quail lived. In this case the annual
loss was estimated at 2 or 3 tons of grapes.
In the laboratory investigation of the food of the California quail
619 stomachs were examined. They were collected in every month
except May, but only one was obtained in March. The other months
are well represented. Animal food, principally insects, amounts to
but 3 percent, and most of this was found in the stomachs of young
birds, mere broodlings. Vegetable food amounts to 97 percent and
consists mainly of seeds of plants most of which are of noxious or
troublesome species.
Animal food.—Ants appear to be a favorite food. They were found
in 82 stomachs, and were eaten by adults as well as by young. They
amount, however, to less than 1 percent of the whole diet. The rest
of the animal food aggregates a little more than 2 percent and is
distributed as follows: Beetles in 30 stomachs, bugs (Hemiptera) in
38, caterpillars in 11, grasshoppers in 7, flies in 2, spiders in 6, mille-
peds in 1, and snails in 2. The most interesting point in this con-
nection was the stomach of a broodling only 3 or 4 days old. Besides
several adult Hemiptera, some ants, caterpillars, and spiders, and a
few seeds, it contained 280 minute insects, which constituted 76
percent of the stomach’s contents, and were identified as an imma-
ture form of a species of scale, Phenacoccus helianthi.
In this connection the following extract from a letter dated at. Los
Angeles, Calif., October 28, 1908, by Dr. W. G. Chambers, to the
Secretary of Agriculture is interesting:
Last May during the hatching season one of my female quail died a week prior to
completing the hatch. An incandescent light of 8 candlepower was substituted, the
result being 15 baby quail, very wild at first, not understanding human sounds
or language, but finally becoming as docile as pet chickens. They were raised in
my back yard, running at large after the first week.
A number of Marguerite bushes which grow in profusion in the yard were so infested a
with black scale that I had decided to uproot them and had postponed doing so, as
the little quail worked so persistently among the branches; upon investigation I
discovered them eating the scale and twittering happily; they would swallow the
fully developed scale and thoroughly clean the branches of all those undeveloped.
The young in the first week of life eat animal matter to the extent
of from 50 to 75 percent of the food, but by the time they are 4
weeks old they take little if any more animal food than the adults.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable part of the quail’s food may be
divided into fruit, grain, seeds, and forage. Fruit appeared in 106
stomachs, and aggregates 2.3 percent of the yearly diet. It was dis-
tributed as follows: Grapes in 7 stomachs, prunes in 9, apple in 3,
Rubus (blackberry or raspberry) in 4, olive in 1, elderberry in 21,
snowberry in 8, manzanita in 2, huckleberry in 11, and rose-haws in 3.
CALIFORNIA QUAIL.. 11
Pulp and skins, identified as fruit only, were found in 27 stomachs,
and unknown seeds, probably those of some small fruit or berry,
occurred in 10 stomachs. It is evident that the percentage of any
one of the above is insignificant. Stomach examination throws no
new light upon the quail’s grape-eating habits, except to show that
the ravages complained of are exceptional. That fruit does not con-
stitute any important part of the bird’s annual food is clearly proved.
Grain was found in 133 stomachs, and constitutes 6.4 percent of
the food. It was distributed as follows: Corn in 14 stomachs, wheat
in 15, oats in 13, barley in 89, and ryein2. The principal complaints
against the quail on the score of grain eating are that flocks sometimes
visit newly sown fields, and eat large quantities of the seed. Walter
E. Bryant says on this point:
Two males which I shot one evening, as they were going to roost for the night, after
having been feeding on a newly sown field, contained the following, mainly in the
crop: (a2) Two hundred and ten whole grains of barley, 6 pieces of broken barley,
3 grains of ‘cheat,’ and 1 of wheat, besides a few barley hulls, some clover leaves, and
alfilaria; (6) one hundred and eighty-five whole grains of barley, 5 broken pieces,
4 grains of ‘cheat,’ and 2 of wheat; also barley hulls, clover, and alfilaria. The flock
numbered nearly or quite 20 birds.¢
Only one report accuses the bird of eating grain from the harvest
field. Mr. W. T. Craig, of San Francisco, writing to the United
States Department of Agriculture, says:
I have observed the quail enter a field of wheat to the number of thousands, and had
they not been driven away they would have destroyed the whole crop.
Stomach examination does not indicate any month in which grain
is eaten in excess of other food. January shows the highest per-
centage, 12.4, but November is nearly as high, while December,
although between the two, shows less than 3 percent. A little more
than 3 percent was eaten in February, and none at all in March and
April, though the newly sown grain would be accessible in one at
least of these months. June and July, the harvest months, show
respectively 4.1 percent and 10.7 percent. In fact the stomach record
plainly indicates that the quail does not make special search for grain,
but being naturally a seed eater takes grain when it comes in the way.
The seeds of a multitude of plants which have no apparent useful
function except to increase by their decay the deposit of humus in the
soil constitute the staff of life of the quail. In this particular inves-
tigation they aggregate 62.5 percent of the food of the year. They
appear in stomachs taken in every month and reach a good per-
centage in each, the only months that show much diminution in
quantity being January, February, March, and April, when new
forage partly replaces seeds. The percentage is highest in June, 85.9,
but shows no great falling off from July to December inclusive.
a Zoe, IV, pp. 55-56, 1893-94.
12 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY. °
Seventy-three kinds of seeds were identified, at least generically, and
more than half of them were determined specifically. Many more
were ground up so as to be unrecognizable. The following is a list of
the seeds with the number of stomachs in which each kind occurred:
Poverty weed (Iva avillaris)..........0-- 202022 e center e eee eee 3
Gum weed (Grindelia squarrosa)....... 2-22-2220 2-02 e eee ete ee eee eee eee 2
Bur marigold (Bidens sp.).....---- 2.20.02 2 ee cee eee cee eee cere e rece et eeee 7
Sunflower (Helianthus sp.) sccscses acne gat sesaean gn anne 6 cee anna sae 1
Tarweed (Madiad sativa) ears x, <:istcvseccic secehidnee Pee oie ale wie rehea eee ld saeacraeee a ease 67
Mayweed. (Anthems cotula) se g.02 see seteia creas x vac ere ndeonnuiciieemurele via tetas _ 27
Milk thistle (Stlybum marianum).....---.------- +2022 222 eee eee ee eee eee 14
Thistle: (Custis pi).c+ oe ose = te eee eee rae cere ea eee Aileen 5
Blessed thistle (Cnicus benedictus)...........-.- 202-2222 e eee eee eee eee ee 1
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)... ......------ 2-2-2220 2 eee eee eee 201
Sow thistle.(Sonchis asper) so ciesdie snes ee wees Sess ade sels 2
Sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus)........- Soeciiaed 3a ius avOagh ahh GRRE 1
Prickly lettuce (Lactuca scariola)........-- Bisa See EG uan va Sacer 4
California dandelion (Agoseris sp.)....-.----------- 222 e ee eee eee eee ee 2
Blue*vervain ( Verbend hastatd) i cccscccses gs ee es ee cana aes 22
Stickseed (Echinospermum sp.)...-.---+-- 220-2222 e eee ee eee eee eee eee 16
Burweed (Amsinckia tesselata) .. <2. 02.22.20 260s0 sean sa ead ees eee ceaels ll
Ribwort (Plantago lanceolata) iccc.c cs sccasesey o3.s4 2444 sone senna 2
Pursh ribwort (Plantago pursht) . 2.2.2.2... 0.20002 1
Common plantain (Plantago major)...........-2-+2.202 20222 e eee eee eee eee 2
Painted cup (Castillet@sp:) 2 cciiccicciais seers Saeed caked de ude eve iee 1
Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)... .....2.---22-- 200202 e eee eee eee eee 10
Dodder (Cuscutasp.)iai2.ci+ ne deccnnn Aaeseees nose amen cea waht cee 3
Morning glory (Convoluulus sp.).......2-.2.2- 20202022 cece eee eee eee eee 2
Pimpernel (Anagaliis:spi)\.o5.c sian taectecga vee Si pds eel 2
Carrot: (Daucis carota seq <iaatectaw oiiivs init Sa ore ata omneee er ds ey ies 5
Lupine (Dupivius ap.) soc eee eee eae: secon 5 £4 te einen alte Ba Tee ee 150
Bur clover ( Medicago denticulata).........2.---202+ 2262222200 c cece eee eee eee 156
Sweet clover (Melilotus alba). ... 22.22.2020. 22002000 c cee cece cece eee e eee ee 6
Clover (Trifolium sp.).....-..--- Pothier oe Reeg Crave yee lett wade tat ate 75
Deer weed (Lorusiglaber)<.a3) 5 sci s2204..at4 shweguencmacneonee ene olaeute 50
Vetch (Vicia sp.)......2...--- STAD, AAR Pe 2 ersten ane ne meee Nh 32
Five-finger (Potentilla sp.).....2-2-2-.2.20 cece cece eee eee eee eee eees 1
Turkey mullein (Hremocarpus setigerus)...........0.000 0020020 c eee eee e eee ee 168
Sumac: Cehus latring) « sexacetuere es Geese yoru sanedon ees eez es ecereg eR ce 69
Poison oak (Rhus diverstloba). .....2.2- 22-22 e eee ee eee ee eee 52
Alfilaria (Erodium Alda 30
Alfilaria (Erodium moschatum)J° °° 0777707077
Carolina geranium (Geranium eat esis AT
Common geranium (Geranium dissectum)..J° °° 7777 nn
Wood sorrel (Oxalis corniculata).....-..-.-. 220.2000 cece ee eee eee eee 1
Mallow (Malwa rotundifolia)... 2.02.2. 0 2c wa ce idabisrste LT
Shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursapastoris)..... 2-2-2 -0.2220 eee eee eee eee eee 1
Peppergrass (Lepidium sp.)....-.2--0- 20-00 cece cece eee ee eee eee eee ee eeeee 5
Wild radish (Raphanus sativus). .......2.2020. 20 ec cee eee ee eee eee eens 5
Black mustard (Brassica nigra)... 0.0.6.0 ccc cece cee cence eee en eee e ees 32
Wild turnip (Brassica campestris)... 2.2.0.2 0-00 ce eee eee eee eee ee eects 3
California poppy (Lschscholtzia californica)... ... 2.2.22 eee eee eee ee eee ;
4
Buttercup (Ranunculus ep.) vv eseoess es va ceee ekaedas ee see vee wecmeewsusines
CALIFORNIA QUAIL. 13
Water crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis).... 2.0.0.0 0.020 c eee eee eee 3
Miner’s lettuce (Montia perfoliata). . 2.22.22... 200000 26
Red maids (Calandrinia menztest). . 2.22.2... 2 eee eee 58
Pigweed (Chenopodium album)... .....-.. 0222-000 cece cece cece cence eee ll
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflerus)...--. 22.22.0000 020 eee 17
Corn spurry (Spergula arvensis). ... 2-2... 2.22 eee eee eeceeeeeee 1
Common chickweed (Stellaria media). ..........0.220000000 0000 cece cee eee 62
Field chickweed (Cerastiwm arvense)......--..00.00020 02 0c cece c eee ee eee 2
Sleepy catchfly (Silene antirrhina).. 2.2.2.0... 2.020000 cee eee ees 58
Black bindweed (Polygonum convolvulus)..........0..220.2020-002- 22sec 1
Dotted smartweed (Polygonum punctatum).......-....2.202000000-0-00 22 -ee 2
Common knotweed (Polygonum lapathifolium)........-.-....-2-2-22-2.2---- 2
Wire grass (Polygonum aviculare)... 22.22.2222 eee cece eee eee 55
Curly dock (Rumex erispus). 2 sccccon eos tonodiecesseeeda ghee ssbecede te cceeess 9
Sorrel (Rumex acetosella).... 2.22222 oe eee cece eee eee 59
Sedge:(Canet sp.) e i: keene dete weet noe veka cegiaoaasene eed cone lace 26
Galingale: ( Cyperus Di) xs ie%sceis sissd oe ces eeteeas ook 2 Oe ate Bence omen es 7
Rag grass (Lolium perenne). .......-..2.22- 22-2022 eee eee cee eee 56
Soft brome (Bromus hordeaceus) ........-.--- 2-2-2222 2 2 eee eee eee eee eee 3
Cheat, or chess (Bromus secalinus)...-..-.-2--2--2-2+-2-020202 20 2c ee ee eee eee 18
Walk grass (Poaannua)s. scseue ocex ee nes eee yo 5 eeu Sb Bee ees Bees ee ss Shee 29
Timothy: (Phlewin: pratense) :.c).0:0.8 Ja seisee esas soos s eeee eee ears oes ee Raee 1
Bear grass (Stipa setigera)......-.----------- Beate earsietc ciaeiat estate Sai 5
Canary grass (Phalaris caroliniana)......---.---+202 02-22 e eee ee eee ee eee 2
Unidentified seeds, mogtly ground up......---.---------+++-+22+ee eee eee 293
From this list it would appear that bur thistle, lupines, bur clover,
and turkey mullein are the favorite seeds; that the others are not
distasteful is shown by the quantities found in some stomachs. For
instance, mayweéd was identified in only 27 stomachs, yet one stom-
ach contained at least 2,000 of these seeds; pigweed (Chenopodium)
in but 11, yet one contained 1,000. One stomach held 83 kernels of
barley, 592 seeds of geranium, 560 of tarweed, 40 of bur thistle, 48 of
clover, 80 of alfilaria, 704 of timothy, 32 of catchfly, and 5 of snow-
berry, or 2,144 seeds in all. Another contained 1,696 geranium seeds,
14 bur thistle, 24 knotweed, 14 tarweed, 38 bur clover, 148 alfilaria,
12 ray grass, and 1 unknown seed, and a pod of uncertain origin—in
all 1,944 seeds and a pod. In both cases the contents of the crop is
included with that of the stomach or gizzard. These samples indicate
considerable variety in the quail’s diet, even in one meal.
Grass and other forage constitute a little over 25 percent of the
quail’s annual food. Forage amounts to less than 1 percent in June,
remains about the same until October, and increases somewhat in
November. In January it becomes important, and it reaches nearly
60 percent of the food for the next four months. The maximum, 85
percent, occurs in March; but this percentage, based on only one
stomach, can not be considered final. Seeds and forage are practically
complementary to each other—that is, as one increases the other de-
creases. June, which shows the least forage, has the largest percentage
of seeds. Taeves of red and of bur clover and of alfilaria were the
14 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY,
favorite kinds, and in some cases constituted the whole stomach con-
tents. Blades of grass are frequently taken. A few bits of acorn, and
perhaps other nuts, were eaten, but the quantity is insignificant.
SUMMARY.
From the above analysis of the food of the California quail, it is
apparent that under normal conditions the farmer and fruit grower
have nothing to fear from its ravages. When, however, large areas
of chaparral land are cleared and brought under cultivation, it is
natural that the products of garden and vineyard should be eaten to
a greater or less extent by quail, which abound in such localities.
On the other hand, its seed-eating record is greatly in its favor.
Usually there is little difficulty in getting rid of a superfluity of game
birds; in fact, in most cases the trouble is to prevent their extermina-
tion. A bird so large, so easily trapped, so valuable as food, and
withal one whose pursuit affords such excellent sport as the valley
quail, will probably .not become numerous enough to do serious
damage except locally and under unusual conditions, and then a
reduction of numbers is the easiest and simplest cure. Permits to
trap quail on one’s own premises are obtainable in California on
application to the State fish commissioner. After the birds have been
sufficiently reduced, they can be kept within reasonable limits by a
moderate amount of shooting in the proper season.
WOODPECKER FAMILY.
(Picide.)
Among the useful birds of the State few take higher rank than the
woodpeckers. They are mainly arboreal, and most of them may be
designated as conservators of the forest in the strictest sense. The
larve of certain species of beetles and moths live either under the
bark or within the solid wood of trees, where they are safe from the
attacks of birds, except such as are furnished by nature with special
tools for digging into wood and bark. In this respect our native
woodpeckers are in general highly favored. The peculiar structure
of their chisel-shaped beak, combined with sharp claws and a stiffened
tail for support, enables them, when they have located their prey,
to drill down to it through several inches of wood and draw it forth
with their tongue. This latter organ, in the more typical species of
the family, is long, cylindrical, and barbed at the tip, being particu-
larly well adapted for probing the burrows of boring insects.
Twenty-one species and subspecies of woodpeckers occur in Cali-
fornia. Of these about half a dozen are sufficiently abundant and
widely distributed to be economically important. The average
WOODPECKER FAMILY. 15
amount of insect food in the stomachs of the six species discussed in
the following pages is 62 percent of the whole contents.
It is unfortunate that the most valuable species of our woodpeckers
are not abundant. In many parts of the country the downy and hairy
woodpeckers are quite rare and, what is worse, appear to be dimin-
ishing in numbers. As they are among the most valuable of our
species, it is worth while to inquire into the cause of their scarcity
and if possible to devise efficient remedies. In most sections these
birds can obtain an abundance of food, and as they are not perse-
cuted, so far as known, the most probable cause for their scarcity
would appear to be the lack of suitable nesting sites. This is es-
pecially true in the northeastern part of the United States where the
war waged upon the gipsy and brown-tail moths has led to the trim-
ming of all dead trunks and limbs from forests and orchards, so that
the woodpeckers, which as a rule dig new nesting holes every year, are
left with no places in which to nest. In Germany, after much experi-
mentation, it has been found possible to construct nesting boxes which
the European woodpeckers freely use. There can be no reasonable
doubt that a similar result can be attained in this country. Pending
experiments and as a step in the right direction, it would be well for
orchardists to leave the stubs of dead limbs on orchard trees as sites
. for the nests of woodpeckers. While the woodpecker may use the
nest it excavates only one season, the hole will be available for blue-
birds, wrens, chickadees, and nuthatches in succeeding years. The
experiment of inducing our woodpeckers, especially the downy and
hairy, to build in artificially constructed nesting boxes is well worth
patient and persistent experiment.
HAIRY WOODPECKER.
(Dryobates villosus harrisi and hyloscopus.)
Two subspecies of the hairy woodpecker occur in California, and
between them they occupy nearly the whole State at some time of the
year. Their favorite haunts are open groves and orchards, and as for-
ests disappear and fruit trees increase in number, they will probably
more and more inhabit orchards. That the hairy woodpecker is far
from abundant at present is unfortunate, for its food habits make it of
great economic importance. Only 27 stomachs have been examined,
but the dates of collection are well distributed. Seven is the greatest
number taken in any one month (September), and none at all were
obtained in March, May, August, and October. While this number
is sufficient to afford a general idea of the kind of food the bird prefers,
it does not furnish reliable data as to the relative proportions of the
different constituents.
16 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Of the contents of the 27 stomachs, 78 percent consisted of animal
matter, nearly all of which was either insects or spiders. The remain-
ing 22 percent was made up of various vegetable substances. In the
relative proportions of animal and vegetable food the California bird
differs somewhat from the eastern subspecies, the diet of which con-
sists of 68 percent of animal matter to 32 of vegetable.
Animal food.—Of the various items in the food of the western
hairy woodpecker, the most important, as well as the largest, is the
larvee of wood-boring beetles (Cerambycide and Buprestide). These
aggregate for the year nearly 49 percent of the total. This is a much
greater proportion than is eaten by the eastern subspecies, and is
probably not exceeded by any other bird. Each of several stomachs
contained more than 20 larve. When the immense damage done by
these borers to forest trees, as well as to orchards, is considered, it is
hardly possible to overestimate the value of this woodpecker’s serv-
ices. Moreover, these insects are concealed and protected from the
attacks of all birds except those of this family. Most of these insects
are taken in the cooler months, the fewest being eaten in July. One
stomach taken in February contained 70 percent of wood-borers, and
the remainder, or 30 percent, consisted of other harmful beetles.
Two stomachs taken in April contained an average of 76 percent of
these destructive borers and 6 percent of other beetles. Beetles
belonging to various families, nearly all of them harmful, and some
very injurious, amount to over 9 percent of the food.
Ants are usually a favorite article of food with woodpeckers, but
with the California hairy woodpeckers they constitute less than 3
percent of the year’s food. This is somewhat surprising, as the
eastern bird eats them to the extent of 17 percent. Other Hymenop-
tera, including wasps, amount to less than 2 percent.
Caterpillars exceed 11 percent, and stand next to beetles in im-
portance. Many.of them are of wood-boring species and evidently
were dug out of trees.
A few miscellaneous insects and some spiders complete the animal
food. Several stomachs contained segments of millepeds, or thou-
sand legs, and one held the remains of one of those bristly creatures
known as jointed spiders (Solpugide).
Vegetable food.—The vegetable part of the diet may be divided into
fruit, seeds, and miscellaneous substances. Fruit amounts to 6 per-
cent, and consists ef the smaller kinds, probably mostly wild species.
Rubus seeds (raspberry or blackberry), found in several stomachs,
were the only fruits positively identified. Seeds aggregate nearly 12
percent, and all that were determined belonged to coniferous trees.
The miscellaneous part contains a little mast and some cambium,
or inner bark, but is mostly rubbish, such as rotten wood, probably
swallowed accidentally with the beetle larve.
WOODPECKER FAMILY. 17
SUMMARY.
The above brief review of the food of the hairy woodpecker indicates
that nearly half its yearly food consists of larve of some of the
most destructive insects known, while this service is not offset by the
destruction of any useful product. The other elements of the bird’s
food are either beneficial or neutral. It is unfortunate that the species
is not more abundant on the Pacific coast.
DOWNY WOODPECKER.
(Dryobates pubescens gairdneri and other subspecies.)
To the ordinary observer the downy woodpecker is only a miniature
edition of the hairy, which it resembles in everything but size. It
seems, however, to be far more abundant than its larger relative,
especially in California. It ismuch more domestic than the hairy,
and frequents orchards and gardens and the vicinity of houses. Its
food consists of the same elements but in different proportions. The
following report is based on an examination of 80 stomachs, taken in
every month of the year. The food consists of 77 percent of animal
matter to 23 of vegetable, thus agreeing closely with the diet of the
hairy.
Animal food.—The animal food is composed of insects, with a few
spiders. The western downy eats 16 percent of wood-boring larve,
a little more than the eastern downy, but less than one-third as much
as the hairy woodpecker. Other beetles amount to 13 percent. They
are mostly harmful species, the exception being a few Carabide, or
predaceous ground beetles.
Ants are eaten to the extent of 12 percent, which is less than half
the quantity taken by the eastern subspecies. While ants may some-
times subserve a useful purpose, they are for the most part annoying
or noxious. It is well known that they protect and foster plant lice,
and they often injure timber by boring galleries through it, frequently
beginning in the abandoned burrow of a beetle larva. In houses
they are an unmitigated nuisance, and in gardens and lawns are often
equally obnoxious. For these reasons the habitual destruction of
ants by woodpeckers is commendable. Other Hymenoptera amount
to less than 2 percent, and consist of wasps and wild bees.
The largest item in the food of the downy is made up of caterpillars,
pup, and a few adult moths. These aggregate a little over 21 per-
cent. Pupz of the codling moth were identified in 4 stomachs and
the larvee in 2, of which one contained 16 entire full-grown larve.
Another held the remains of 20 of these pernicious insects. From
investigations during the past few years it appears that birds con-
stitute a most efficient natural check to the spread of this destruc-
tive moth, especially such birds as woodpeckers, titmice, nuthatches,
and creepers, which obtain much of their food from crevices in the
38301—Bull. 34—10-——_2
18 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
bark of trees. It behooves the orchardist to see that these birds are
carefully protected on his premises and encouraged in every pos-
sible way.
The Hemiptera, or bugs, which appear in the food of the downy
woodpecker are plant lice and scales, with a few other forms. They
amount to 10 percent of the year’s food, but all were eaten in the
seven months beginning with March, and averaged 17 percent for each
of these months. Scales were found in 8 stomachs, and in one they
constituted 83 percent of the contents. The black olive scale
(Saissetia ole) was the only one identified. Plant lice were found
in 11 stomachs, but none were specifically identified, although
some were of the woolly species. That these are a favorite food is
shown by the quantity eaten. Five stomachs contained the follow-
ing percentages: 94, 94, 84, 81, and 80. These creatures are so
fragile that the process of digestion soon destroys their shape, and
it is highly probable that small numbers were contained in many
more stomachs but were not identified.
Grasshoppers, although a favorite article of bird food, are entirely
ignored by the downy woodpecker. This emphasizes the arboreal
habits of this species, as most birds feed upon grasshoppers, when
in season, in preference to their ordinary food. Flies also are prac-
tically shaeat from the diet of the downy. A few miscellaneous
insects and spiders, amounting in all to 3 percent, make up the
remainder of the animal food.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable part of the food may be arranged
under three heads—fruit, seeds, and miscellaneous items. Fruit
was found in 14 stomnelis, and amounts to 9 percent of the food.
Cherries were identified in a few stomachs, and apples, or a similar
fruit, in several more; but most of the remains were skins of small
barties not further tdentiied, Evidently this bird does little or no
damage to fruit. Seeds amount to a little more than 7 percent, and
are mostly those of poison oak, which the downy, in common with
many other birds, aids in disseminating. Grain (oats) was found
in 2 stomachs. The miscellaneous vegetable food, 7 percent, consists
of mast, or acorn meat, a little cambium, and rubbish.
Food of young.—A nest of young downies was watched for 12 one-
hour periods during six days, and the number of feedings noted as
follows:
Date: Hours in sins teal Hours in Mangber
forenoon, feedings. afternoon. feedings. ;
9,16-10.16 12 4.23-5.23 13
S.01- 9.01 10 1.13-2.13 10
10,42-11.42 12 5.00-6.00 10
9.17-10.17 14 2.34-3.34 10
10,15-11.15 11 4.49~5.49 15
10.37-11.37 20 4.33-5.33 23
WOODPECKER FAMILY. 19
In the twelve hours during which the birds were watched, the
nestlings were fed 160 times, an average of 134 times per hour; or
each of the 4 was fed more than three times per hour. The nest
was in a stub of a cherry tree in a mixed orchard, and apparently
all the foraging was done in the immediate vicinity, as food was
brought too often to have been carried any great distance; moreover,
the parent birds were frequently seen searching the trees. Both
parents took part in caring for the young, one often waiting patiently
near by while the other fed the nestlings. At first the parent birds
entered the nest chamber when they came with food, but later, as
the nestlings grew larger, they remained outside, thrusting their heads
in at the opening. The food nearly always appeared as a white mass
in the beak, which led to the suspicion that the young were being fed
with woolly aphids. The parent birds came from the direction of
a number of apple trees which were badly infested with this pest, and
the bark of the trees showed places from which the insects had been
recently taken. Thus it was practically certain that aphids were
being fed to the young woodpeckers.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing account it is evident that the downy wood-
pecker is of great value to the horticulturist. Its food consists
largely of orchard pests, and its levies upon fruit are insignificant.
The orchardist should note that the downy makes its nest in a cham-
ber which it excavates in a partly rotten trunk or limb of moderate
size, frequently of an apple tree. Where such wood occurs in or
about the orchard, it should be left for the convenience of the wood-
pecker and his successors, the wrens and titmice. By so simple a
precaution as this the number of downies and of other useful birds
that build in holes may be materially increased in an orchard and
their services secured without cost at the very point where most
needed. When trimming dead limbs, it is necessary only to leave a
few inches of the stub, which is not unsightly, and which answers
all the purposes of the woodpecker.
NUTTALL WOODPECKER.
(Dryobates nuttalli.)
The Nuttall woodpecker is well distributed over California west
of the Sierra Nevada, but is less abundant than the downy and not
quite so domestic. It is rather more fond of big oaks and other
forest trees than of the orchard, but is often found on fruit trees.
The following analysis of its food is based upon the examination of
the contents of 46 stomachs, taken in various parts of the State and
in every month except May. The first division of the food into
20 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
animal and vegetable matter gives 78 percent of the former to 22
percent of the latter, exactly the same as in the case of the hairy
woodpecker.
Animal food.—Of the animal food, beetles are the largest item,
and amount to nearly 34 percent. They consist largely of larval
Cerambycide, or borers. While not so good a driller for insects as
the hairy, the efforts of the Nuttall are not to be despised. It destroys
a goodly number of wood-borers, but it eats more adult beetles of other
families than do either of the species whose food has been discussed.
A considerable number of small leaf beetles (Chrysomelide) are eaten
by the Nuttall, and are probably taken from leaves. It eats also
click beetles (Elateridx), darkling beetles (Tenebrionide), and
weevils (Rhyncophora), among which the genus Balaninus, that
preys upon acorns and other nuts, was identified. A few predaceous
ground beetles (Carabidee) were found.
Ants do not appear to be a favorite food of this woodpecker, and
they were eaten very irregularly. They constituted 36 percent of
the food in June, 22 percent in September, and appear in small quan-
tities in January and August, but are completely wanting in the other
months. The average for the year is less than 6 percent. Other
Hymenoptera form practically the same percentage, but nearly all
were contained in a single stomach taken in December.
Hemiptera (bugs), like ants, are taken very irregularly and occur
either in considerable quantities or not at all. In January they
amount to 46 percent of the food of the month, in February to 28
percent, in June to 10 percent, in July to 36 percent, but in the other
months do not appear. The average for the year is 11 percent. They
belong to several families, but no special pest is prominent. Scales
were found in two stomachs and plant lice in one. Three stomachs
contained remains of the box-elder bug, Leptocoris trivittatus, of
which two stomachs contained between 30 and 40 specimens each.
This bug is very abundant in some places at times, and injures the
box-elder tree. It has also done some damage to fruit.
Diptera (flies) were found only in the stomachs taken in June.
They amounted to 12 percent for that month or 1 percent for the
whole year.
Caterpillars stand next to beetles in the quantity eaten by the
Nuttall woodpecker. They amount to over 13 percent of the food,
and, except in the three winter months, appear very regularly.
Many of them are of the wood-boring kinds, but leaf-eaters also are
present. Various other insects, insects’ eggs, and a few spiders
amount to 7 percent, and complete the animal food.
Vegetable food.—Fruit amounts to 11 percent, or half of the vege-
table food. Naturally most of it was taken during the summer and
fall months, although the one stomach taken in December contained
WOODPECKER FAMILY. 21
a 1
35 percent of fruit pulp not further identified. The greater part of
the fruit eaten is of wild species, of which the elder (Sambucus) is the
favorite. Rubus fruits (raspberry or blackberry) were found in a
few stomachs. Probably this bird will never do any serious harm by
eating fruit. Seeds of poison oak, cambium, and mast (acorns) make
up the other 11 percent of the vegetable food, and have no special
economic interest, except that the scattering abroad of the seeds of
poison oak is a nuisance. Taken as a whole, the vegetable food of
the Nuttall is of little economic importance.
SUMMARY.
While the evidence at hand does not show that this bird feeds on
any specific pest, yet it is doing good i in preying upon noxious insects
in general; moreover, it does not injure any product of husbandry.
It should therefore be encouraged to pursue its good work.
RED-BREASTED SAPSUCKER.
(Sphyrapicus ruber.)
While the red-breasted sapsucker inhabits most of California at
some time of the year, it is generally absent from the valleys during
the warmer months, usually retiring to the mountains and forest
regions to breed.
Of the 24 stomachs of this species received, nearly all were taken
in fruit-growing sections, and represent only the months from Sep-
tember to March inclusive. Statements based upon the examination
of so little material can scarcely be considered final, but considerable
knowledge may be gained of the kinds of food eaten, even if the
relative quantities can not be determined. The food consists of 63
percent of animal matter and 37 percent of vegetable.
Animal food.—Seventy-five percent of the animal food consists of
ants, and the average per month is 40 percent of the whole diet. Two
stomachs taken in January contained an average of 49 percent each.
One stomach collected in March held 84 percent, and one in September
was completely filled with them. In other months the amounts were
less. In respect to ant eating this sapsucker keeps up the reputation
of the family. Other Hymenoptera aggregate only a little more than
7 percent, and all were found in stomachs taken from October to
December inclusive.
This bird, like its eastern relative, has the habit of removing patches
of bark from certain live trees, usually willows, for the sake of cam-
bium and of the sap which exudes; and it also eats the insects at-
tracted by the sap, which are mostly bees, wasps, and ants; prob-
ably this accounts for the large predominance of Hymenoptera in the
sapsucker’s diet.
22 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Beetles amounted in January to 3.5 percent, in November to 1.4
percent, in December to 0.7 percent, with none at all in the other
months. The average for the whole year is only 0.8 percent. No
larvee of wood-borers were found, and apparently this bird never aids
the hairy woodpecker in the good work of destroying these creatures.
The species eaten were mostly small leaf beetles (Chrysomelide), with
a few weevils.
Hemiptera (bugs) and Diptera (flies) were entirely wanting in the
stomachs examined. Caterpillars were present in two stomachs, both
taken in October. They amounted to 5 percent of the food of that
month. One stomach taken in February was entirely filled by a large
centipede.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable part of the food of the red-breasted
sapsucker falls naturally into three divisions—fruit, seeds, and other
vegetable matter. As the bird is not present in the fruit-growing
sections of the State when fruit is ripe, it can not make great inroads
upon the orchard. While fruit aggregates nearly 17 percent, it is.
mostly wild or of worthless varieties. Figs, whose seeds and pulp
were found in one stomach, were the only cultivated kind identified.
Several stomachs contained berries of the pepper tree (Schinus molle),
one contained cascara berries (Rhamnus californicus), and in several
were unidentified seeds and pulp. Seeds amount to about 9 percent,
and are those of the poison oak, with a few others. The miscellaneous
item is made up almost entirely of cambium, or the inner bark of trees,
and amounts to about 11 percent of the whole food.
SUMMARY.
It is evident that the red-breasted sapsucker falls far below some
other members of its family in economic importance. It does not
prey upon the worst pests of the orchard and forest, but on the other
hand it does not feed on the products of the orchard or farm. It
injures trees by tapping holes in the bark and by stripping it off in
patches, for which reason this sapsucker may be considered more
harmful than beneficial.
CALIFORNIA WOODPECKER.
( Melaner pes formicivorus bairdi.)
The California woodpecker is distributed throughout a large part
of the State, but is in the main confined to places where there is.an
abundance of large oaks—trees for which it appears to have a special
liking and from which it derives much of its subsistence. Wherever
it lives it is usually abundant and the most noticeable element of the
bird fauna, attracting attention both by its loud cries and by its con-
spicuous flight. It is one of the few woodpeckers whose food is more
largely vegetable than animal.
WOODPECKER FAMILY. 93
Of all the woodpeckers the California has made most impression on
nonscientific observers, owing to its peculiar habit of drilling holes
into the trunks and branches of dead trees or into the bark of living
ones, in each of which it stores an acorn. Wherever the bird is abun-
dant every dead trunk or large branch is punctured with holes, fre-
quently less than an inch apart. So zealous is it in this work that
when trees are not available it often drills holes in cornices, church
spires, telegraph and telephone poles, and fence posts. The wood-
pecker does not ‘get the benefit of all its hoarded acorns by any
means, for jays, rats, mice, and squirrels have learned where they can
obtain food in winter, and are not backward in helping themselves
to the woodpecker’s stores. As this robbery of his larder is resented
by the owner, it leads to endless quarrels.
For the laboratory investigation of the food of the California wood-
pecker 75 stomachs were available. They were taken in every month
except February, April, and May, the greater number in June and July,
when the bird’s chances to do mischief are greatest. The food con-
sists of 22.43 percent of animal matter to 77.57 percent of vegetable.
This is the highest percentage of végetable matter yet found in the
stomach of any woodpecker, though the red-bellied (Centurus caro-
linus) comes very close to it.
Animal food.—Beetles constitute the smallest item of the animal
food. They amount to less than 3 percent, and are distributed among
several families. The only month in which they are at all prominent
is July, when they reach nearly 15 percent. No wood-boring larvee
were found. This would seem to indicate that the bird uses its
chisel-shaped bill solely for the purpose of boring holes in which to
store acorns, instead of excavating for insects.
Ants amount to 8.21 percent of the food. In one stomach taken
in March they constitute 50 percent of the contents, but in no other
do they reach 11 percent. The specific name of this bird, formicivorus,
ant-eating, is not well chosen, for ants do not form a large part
of its diet as compared with several other woodpeckers. Other
Hymenoptera amount to 6.88 percent. More than half of these were
in stomachs taken in August, when they aggregate 33 percent.
A few bugs, flies, and grasshoppers, with fragments of caterpillars,
make up the remainder of the animal food, 4.52 percent. One stom-
ach contained a few black olive scales.
Vegetable food.—Grain, fruit, and mast constitute nearly the whole
of the vegetable food. One stomach taken in January contained
nothing but corn, and another in December contained a few corn
hulls. This is the whole of the grain record, and is of no economic
interest. The average for the year but slightly exceeds 1 percent.
Fruit amounts to a little more than 24 percent, and was found in nearly
every month in which stomachs were taken. Most of it was evidently
24 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
the pulp of the larger cultivated varieties, though that in the stomachs
taken in winter could have had no economic value. Seeds of the
elderberry (Sambucus) were found in two stomachs. The largest
amounts of fruit were eaten in August and September, when they
reached 59.34 and 54 percent, respectively. While this is a high per-
centage of fruit, it is not believed that the bird does any sensible
damage in the orchard, since it is not numerous enough and does not
usually frequent cultivated ground. No complaints of such damage
have yet been heard.
The principal item of food of the California woodpecker is acorns.
Acorns form 52.45 percent of the year’s food, and were found in every
month when stomachs were taken except August; as only three were
collected in that month, the record is not very reliable. In Novem-
ber, when 12 stomachs were taken, mast amounted to nearly 93.58
percent of the average contents. In 12 stomachs collected in June,
when fruit and insects are abundant, it averaged 79.25 percent. In
July it fell to 29.47 percent, the deficiency of acorns being made up
by animal food, which attains the highest percentage in that month.
The question has been raised whether the woodpecker stores acorns
for the sake of the meat, or for the grubs that frequently develop
therein. Stomach examination shows that, while the substance of
the acorn is eaten freely whenever obtainable, larve are almost
entirely wanting. It is therefore the nuts themselves that the
woodpecker stores for food. From an economic point of view little
objection to this acorn-eating habit can be raised. The acorn crop
is usually superabundant, and in most cases can not be put to better
use than to tide the woodpeckers over the winter until insects become
plentiful.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing discussion of the food of the California wood-
pecker it is obvious that the bird’s food does not possess high eco-
nomic value. On the other hand the bird can not be charged with
the destruction of useful insects or of any product of husbandry.
While it eats some fruit, it does not habitually infest orchards, and
is seldom numerous enough to be a serious nuisance. The few insects
it eats are nearly all harmful.
The trees used by the bird for storehouses are usually dead or partly
so, and in living trees the punctures do not go through the bark, so that
no harm is done. When holes are drilled in buildings, fences, or tele-
graph poles, theinjury is real, but on the whole the damage done in
this way is not extensive.
When the beneficial and injurious habits of the bird are carefully
weighed, the balance is decidedly in the bird’s favor; and from the
esthetic standpoint few birds are more interesting and beautiful.
WOODPECKER FAMILY, 95
RED-SHAFTED FLICKER.
(Colaptes cafer collaris.)
In food habits the flickers of California do not differ essentially
from their eastern relatives. They are usually abundant wherever
there are trees, and are frequenters of orchards, though they usually
choose higher trees for nesting sites. They are among the most ter-
restrial of the woodpeckers, and obtain a large part of their food on
the ground.
For the investigation of the flicker’s food 118 stomachs, taken in
all months except January and May, were available. In these
stomachs animal food amounts to 54 percent and vegetable to 46
percent.
Animal food.—Beetles, in either adult or larval form, do not appear
to be favorite food with the flicker. They amount to 3 percent of
its diet, and are apparently eaten to a small extent in every month.
In August they amount to 8 percent, in November to 7, and in all
other months the percentage is small. They belong to 6 families,
all harmful except the predaceous ground beetles (Carabide). These
occurred in 33 stomachs, but the percentage in each case was small,
and they seem to be taken only incidentally. Weevils were found in
4 stomachs, click beetles in one, darkling beetles in 6, rove beetles in
3, and Notorus alamede in one.
Ants constitute the largest item of the flicker’s food, and are eaten
in every month. They are the object of the bird’s search on the
ground and in rotten logs and stumps. The average for the year is
45 percent, the same as was found in 230 stomachs of the eastern
flicker. The stomach and crop of one individual of the eastern form
taken in Texas was filled with over 5,000 small black ants (Cremasto-
gaster). Each of several California stomachs held more than 1,000
of these insects, and others but few less. In 10 stomachs taken in
June the average percentage of ants was 76; in 10 taken in July, it
was 87 percent. November was the month of least consumption,
when the average of 34 stomachs was 7 percent. Of the 118 stom-
achs, 78, or 66 percent of the whole, contained ants, and 14 held
nothing else, except a little rubbish in three, and in one a few seeds of
filaree (Erodium). Inasmuch as certain ants in California, in the
latter part of summer, make a, business of harvesting seeds, probably
this particular woodpecker had picked up a few ants that were thus
employed. Hymenoptera other than ants are eaten by the flicker
only occasionally, and average less than 1 percent of the yearly food.
Miscellaneous insects amount to nearly 5 percent. They consist
of common crickets, wood crickets, mole crickets, caterpillars, white
ants (Termes), spiders, and sow bugs (Oniscus). All of these suggest
26 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
decaying logs and stumps, where the flicker obtains a large share of
its food.
The following insects and crustaceans were identified in the food of
the flicker:
COLEOPTERA.
Amara insignis. Calathus ruficollis.
Anisodactylus dilatatus. Platynus maculicollis.
Anisodactylus piceus. Harpalus sp.
HYMENOPTERA.
Formica neorufibarbis. Messor andrei.
Cremastogaster lineata. Solenopsis geminata.
Lasius sp. Prenolepis imparis.
CRUSTACEA.
Porcellio scabra. Oniscus sp.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the flicker includes many
items. They may, however, be grouped under four heads: Mast, grain,
fruit, and other vegetable food. Mast forms 10 percent of the food.
It is taken fairly regularly, but in the greatest quantity in winter. It
was contained in 15 stomachs, 1 holding nothing else. In one case
it was English walnut, but in all others it appeared to be the meat
of acorns. December showed the maximum amount, 40 percent.
Grain was found only in stomachs taken in August, October, and
November, the highest percentage being in August, about 17 percent.
The total for the year was only 4 percent. It was all contained in 16
stomachs, and consisted of corn in 14 cases, barley in 1, and oats
in 1. A stomach taken in November was entirely filled with corn.
It is not likely, however, that the flicker ever does serious damage to
corn or any other grain. The examinations do not indicate any
great fondness for this food, and observation has never shown that the
bird makes a practice of visiting grain fields.
Fruit was found in 39 stomachs, in 26 of which it was thought to
be of cultivated varieties, but in the other 13 it was wild. Apples,
cherries, grapes, prunes, and probably pears were the domestic fruits
identified. One stomach was entirely filled with apple pulp and
another practically so. Grapes are apparently the favorites. The
wild varieties of fruit identified were pepper berries, elderberries,
and gooseberries. Fruit pulp that could not be further determined
was found in several stomachs and was classified as domestic, although
it may have been wild. The aggregate of fruit for the year is 15 per-
cent. While no complaints have been lodged against the flicker for
depredations upon fruit, evidently it can do serious damage where it
is abundant. It enjoys living in orchards or their immediate vicinity,
and, as the stomachs show, does not hesitate to sample their prod-
ucts, but it cats most of its fruit in the latter part of the season, after
WOODPECKER FAMILY, 27
cherries, apricots, peaches, and prunes have been gathered. Septem-
ber is the month of greatest consumption, 48 percent. Fruit is taken
quite regularly during the rest of the year; but only 6 percent was
eaten in June, the month of cherries, and 7 percent in July, the month
when apricots are at their best, and none in August, the month of
peaches and prunes. The damage done to fruit by the flicker probably
consists in spoiling a few choice specimens, rather than in extensive
destruction of the crop.
Various other substances make up the remaining vegetable food of
the flicker, 17 per cent. Of these the most conspicuous is the seed of
poison oak (Rhus diversiloba). These noxious seeds were found in 41
stomachs, and 1 was entirely filled with them. Very few are eaten
in June and July, but they form an important article of diet through
the fall and winter. The month of greatest consumption is October,
when they constitute 40 per cent of the total food. The consump-
tion of these seeds would be a decided benefit to man if they were”
ground up and destroyed in the stomachs. Unfortunately they are
either regurgitated or pass through: the intestinal tract uninjured and
ready to germinate. The action of the stomach simply removes the
outer covering, a white, wax-like substance, which is probably very
nutritious, and is evidently relished by many birds. Birds are prob-
ably the most active agents in the dissemination of these noxious
shrubs. On the other hand, these seeds, which are wonderfully
abundant, afford food for thousands of birds during the winter, when
other food is hard to obtain, and thus enable the birds to tide over the
cold season to do their good work of destroying insects the next
summer. Seeds of a nonpoisonous Rhus, some weed seeds, and a
little rubbish were found in a few stomachs.
The flicker of California, and probably of the west coast in general,
has one habit not observed in the eastern species. The mild climate
and abundant food supply render migration unnecessary, but, like
many other birds that nest in holes in trees, it likes shelter during the
winter nights. As trees in which cavities can be made are not numer-
ous enough, it pecks holes in buildings, as barns, schoolhouses, and
churches. It often happens that the hole leads into the interior of
the building and so proves useless to the bird, and it makes another and
another till it hits the right place—in the cornice, for instance. Usu-
ally several holes are made before suitable shelter is found, and the
consequent disfigurement and damage are sometimes serious.
SUMMARY.
In summing up the food of this flicker, two points are important—
the destruction of ants and the eating and consequent scattering of
the seeds of poison oak. The destruction of ants is a benefit, but it
does not appeal to the horticulturist and farmer as does the destruc-
tion of well-known pests. While people are often annoyed by ants,
28 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
they seldom suffer much damage by them. However, though ants
do not destroy fruit or other crops to any great extent, they aid
and abet other insects which do considerable harm. This is partic-
ularly true in regard to plant lice, which are housed, protected, and
generally cared for by ants. Ants also continue the destructive work
in timber begun by beetle larve until the wood is rendered worthless.
The other insects eaten by the flicker are all more or less harmful,
except a few useful ground beetles (Carabide). Most of the vegeta-
ble food is neutral; the amount of fruit and grain destroyed is not
sufficient to constitute serious injury, but the scattering broadcast
of the seeds of poison oak is harmful. As on the whole the flicker
does more good than harm, it should be protected and encouraged.
OTHER WOODPECKERS.
Several other species of woodpeckers inhabit the State of California
but, excepting the Lewis woodpecker, they are neither so numerous
nor so generally distributed as those already treated. Their food
consists'in the main of the same elements, although the proportions
vary with the species. The Lewis woodpecker (Asyndesmus lewisi)
is perhaps the most important of these species, but since only 23 of
its stomachs are available for examination, a definite statement of
its food during the year can not yet be made. It appears to eat
rather more vegetable than animal food, and in fall and winter eats
large quantities of acorns. In the selection of its animal food it
resembles the flicker in showing a decided taste for ants and other
Hymenoptera.
Dr. C. Hart Merriam contributes the following note on this species:
The Lewis woodpecker is one of the commonest and most widely distributed wood-
peckers of California, in these respects coming next after the California woodpecker
( Melaner pes formicivorus bairdi). But owing to its habit of breeding at higher altitudes
it is less often seen in the lower and more highly cultivated parts of the State, except
during migration. It breeds mainly in the Ponderosa pine forests of the mountains
(Transition zone), whence, usually in early September, it descends into the blue oak
and Digger pine belt of the foothills to spend the winter.
Like the California woodpecker, it is a skillful flycatcher, pursuing and capturing
insects in mid-air. But in fall and winter its principal food is acorns, of which it eats
surprising quantities. At this season is is usually seen in small flocks of from 6 to 20
birds, each carrying a large acorn in its bill. ,
These woodpeckers are very fond of ripening apples, and in early September descend
in flocks upon the orchards, particularly those of the higher foothills, and in certain
cases, if let alone, destroy practically all the fruit. I have heard of their depredations
in various parts of the State and have personally seen the birds, in early September,
circling about the orchards and diving down into the apple trees between Round
Mountain and Montgomery Creek, and in Fall River Valley, Shasta County, and in
Scott Valley and the upper canyon of Klamath River near Beswick, in Siskiyou
County. At the latter place they are so destructive that during the ripening of the
fruit gunners employed to shoot them frequently kill 25 in a day, and in early Sep-
tember, 1907, I was told that as many as 50 had been killed in one day.
FLYCATCHER FAMILY, 29
While, as stated above, our investigations have not proceeded far
enough to enable a final statement to be made regarding this wood-
pecker’s economic status, enough is known to justify the belief that
the bird, by its destruction of insects the year round, is much more
beneficial than injurious, despite its occasional depredations on
apples and other fruit.
The sapsuckers of the genus Sphyrapicus have been accused of
doing much harm by boring into fruit and other trees for sap, and
while the charge is well founded the injury is largely counterbalanced
by the bird’s destruction of insects. The sapsuckers are not numer-
ous enough, however, to be reckoned an important factor either way.
FLYCATCHER FAMILY.
(Tyrannide.)
Among our useful birds the flycatchers (Tyrannide) take high rank.
As is well known their principal food consists of insects captured in
mid-air. If the name flycatcher implied that these birds subsisted
largely upon flies (Diptera), it would be a misnomer, for nearly all the
species eat far more Hymenoptera than Diptera. In fact wasp-
catcher would be much more appropriate. The name, however, is
intended to suggest the idea that the birds are flying when they catch
their prey. The capture of food in this way implies that the species
are strong, rapid flyers, and capable of making quick turns in the air.
In addition to flying insects, the flycatchers eat spiders and other
wingless forms and some vegetable food which they pick up from the
ground or snatch from trees. The animal food of the 6 species
discussed in the following pages averages 90 percent of their diet.
Several flycatchers in the eastern part of the country are quite
domestic in their habits and frequent orchards and gardens, and some
species nest about buildings. In California some of the correspond-
ing species have not yet become so accustomed to the presence of
man and his works, but they are learning rapidly. The black phoebe
is perhaps as familiar there as is the common phoebe in the East; but
the kingbird of California has not fully decided that the orchard is a
safe and altogether desirable place for nesting purposes. Sixteen spe-
cies and subspecies of flycatchers have been found within the limits
of this State. Six of them are numerous enough to be of economic
importance.
ASH-THROATED FLYCATCHER.
(Mytarchus cinerascens.)
The ash-throated flycatcher is a summer resident of the-lower and
warmer parts of the State. Its habit of nesting in cavities perhaps
causes it to seek the vicinity of farm buildings, where such accommo-
dations are numerous. It builds in hollow trees also, which may often
30 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
be found in the older orchards. The eastern species (M. crinitus),
which nests in hollow trees, habitually places the shed skin of a snake
in the walls of its nest. The reason for this is not plain, but the writer
has never seen or heard of a nest in which the snake skin was lacking.
The ash-throat occasionally does the same thing, but apparently does
not consider the snake skin indispensable. Though an orchard bird,
it seldom eats any cultivated fruit, but confines its diet largely to
insects, most of which are either injurious or neutral.
In the following investigation of the ash-throat, 80 stomachs were
used, collected from April to December inclusive, but only one in
each month after July. Animal food amounts to 92 percent and veg-
etable to 8 percent for the season. Stomachs taken in April, May,
August, October, and November contained no vegetable food what-
ever. The one stomach taken in September held 44 percent of elder-
berries, which is exceptional. A greater number of stomachs in this
month would probably have reduced this percentage considerably.
Animal food.—Of the animal food, beetles, almost entirely of harm-
ful species, amount to 5 percent. The two families most prominent
in the food are the longicorns (Cerambycide) and the metallic wood-
borers (Buprestidee), which are the very ones whose larve are so
extensively eaten by woodpeckers. Next to these were the click
beetles (Elateride), that bore into various plants and do much dam-
age, and a few weevils or snout beetles (Rhynchophora). A ground
beetle (Carabide) was found in one stomach, and a ladybird (Coc-
cinellidse) in another, these being the only useful beetles taken.
Bees, wasps, and a few ants (Hymenoptera) amount to 27 percent.
They are eaten regularly in every month when the bird is on its sum-
mer range. Five stomachs were taken in the vicinity of an apiary,
but not one of them contained a trace of a honey bee, though one
bird had eaten 24 percent of robber flies (Asilidxe), which have been
known to prey upon bees.
Bugs (Hemiptera) aggregate about 20 percent of the food of the
ash-throat, which is the largest showing for that order of insects yet
found in the food of any flycatcher. They were all eaten in the
months from May to August inclusive, and form a good percentage
in each of those months. They belong to the families of stinkbugs
(Pentatomidw), shield bugs (Scutelleridx), leafhoppers (Jasside),
jumping plant lice (Psyllidw), common plant lice (Aphidide), tree
hoppers (Membracidie), cicadas (Cicadid), and assassin bugs (Redu-
viidie). The last is a family of predaccous insects which are useful,
as they destroy some harmful insects, but all the others are injurious,
and some are pests. While many of these are taken upon the wing,
probably some are picked from plants. One bird was seen on a mus-
tard plant feeding upon the plant lice, which completely infested the
FLYCATCHER FAMILY, 31
plant. One stomach was entirely filled with tree hoppers and two
with cicadas. .
Flies (Diptera) amount to about 14 percent and were eaten in nearly
every month. Robber flies were identified in two stomachs, one of
which has already been referred to. Most of the others were of the
family of the common house fly (Muscide).
Caterpillars were found in 20 stomachs and moths in 7. Together
they amount to 19 percent of the food. This shows that caterpillars
are a favorite article of food with this bird, and proves that it does
not take all its food on the wing. While no stomach was entirely
filled with caterpillars, one contained nothing but moths. ;
Grasshoppers formed about 5 percent of the food, and were mostly
taken in May, June, and July. One stomach contained nothing else.
As they do not often come within reach of flycatchers, these insects
must be especially sought for.
Various other insects and spiders amount to a little more than 3
percent. Among these the two most prominent were dragonflies and
Raphidia. These last are small insects with remarkably long necks,
and as they prey upon other insects and are said to feed upon the
larve of the codling moth, their destruction by birds is to be deplored.
Spiders are eaten by the ash-throat quite regularly, but not exten-
sively. ‘Apparently, most birds take spiders when found, but do not
seek for them.
Vegetable food.—Vegetable food was found in 9stomachs. Of these,
5 contained remains of elderberries; 2, bits of other small fruit; and
2, skins which might have been those of cultivated varieties. The
total for the year is 8 percent.
Feeding of young.—Besides the examination of stomachs of the
ash-throated flycatcher, observations were made upon the feeding of
a nest of young situated in the cornice of an abandoned ranch house.
The nest contained four young about a week old when first discovered.
The number of feedings and times of observations are given in the
following table:
. Number . Number
Heurs in Hours in
of feed- of feed-
Pate: forenoon. ings. afternoon. ings.
PUNE 1S 225 eck ncciisGick cease eS 12. 59-1. 59 :
18
6
PUNO lease cen senmarece cites 5. 15- 6. 15
DO se aiqani see was as tenes 11. 27-12. 27
JUNC 28 eo essns etoece cae eee ee 5. 26- 6.26
32 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
In all, the nest was observed for eight and one-half hours and 119
feedings were noted, or an average of 14 feedings per hour. Both
parent birds took part in the feeding until the female was unfortu-
nately killed after the first hour of feeding on the morning of June 27.
It will be noted that during this early hour more feedings were ob-
served than at any other, and that at practically the same hour the
next morning, June 28, the male bird alone was able to feed only 16
times. However, the young did well, and left the nest that afternoon.
As the day was about fourteen hours long when the above notes were
taken, each of the young birds must have been fed about 49 times
every day, or 196 insects in all. It is safe to say that the parents
would eat enough more to bring the total up to 250. Several nests
of this bird in an orchard would make quite a difference in the num-
ber of insects surviving to propagate the next year’s supply.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing it is evident that the ash-throat attacks no
product of husbandry, but keeps up an incessant war upon insects.
Of these it devours a vast number in the course of the year, mostly
harmful species. This bird likes to reside in the vicinity of houses,
gardens, and orchards. Let it be encouraged by all means.
ARKANSAS KINGBIRD.
(Tyrannus verticalis.)
The Arkansas kingbird (P1. IT) inhabits the lower and warmer part
of the State, mainly as a summer resident. It is not so domestic as
its eastern relative, the common kingbird, and seems to prefer the
hill country, with scattering oaks, rather than the orchard or the
vicinity of towns or ranch buildings.
For the investigation of the kingbird’s food 78 stomachs were
available. Most- of them were taken from March to July inclusive,
but a few in September, October, and December. The bird’s yearly
food is made up of 87 percent of animal matter to 13 percent of
vegetable.
Animal food.—The animal food is composed of insects and a few
bones of a batrachian (tree frog or salamander). Both the eastern
and western kingbirds have been accused of destroying honey bees
(Apis mellifera) to a harmful extent. It.is said that the birds linger
about the hives and snap up the bees as they return home laden with
honey. Remains of honey bees were searched for with special care,
and were found to constitute 5 percent of the food. Thirty-one
individuals were discovered in 5 stomachs. Of these, 29 were drones,
or males, and 2 were workers. In 3 stomachs containing males there
was no other food, and when it is borne in mind that there are thou-
FLYCATCHER FAMILY. 33
sands of worker bees to one drone, it appears that the latter must be
carefully selected. As a rule, the destruction of drones is not an
injury to the colony, and often is a positive benefit. The food of the
eastern kingbird shows practically the same ratio between drones and
workers. Hymenoptera other than honey bees amount to 38 percent,
and include wild bees, wasps, and ants, with a few parasitic species.
The latter are very useful insects, and their destruction is an injury,
but fortunately the kingbird is not especially fond of them.
The late Walter Bryant, of Santa Rosa, Calif., says:
Mr. A. Barnett, of San Diego County, had 300 swarms of bees, which attracted the
flycatchers to such an extent that he made some investigations to ascertain to what
extent they might be damaging the bee industry.
Over 100 flycatchers were dissected, principally Arkansas flycatchers and phoebes
(Black and Say’s?). In all of the Arkansas flycatchers drones were found, but no
working bees, although in many cases the birds were gorged. In most of the phoebes
drone bees were found; the only exception was that of a phoebe (Say’s?) in which a
bee’s sting was found in the base of the tongue.
The birds were all shot about apiaries and were seen darting upon and catching the
bees.¢
Such testimony is sufficient to-clear these flycatchers of the sus-
picion that they interfere with the bee industry.
Beetles of various families form about 14 percent of the food.
They are all harmful species except a few predaceous ground beetles
and ladybird beetles. They were taken very regularly through the
months, and appear to be a favorite food.
Orthoptera—grasshoppers and crickets—amount to 20 percent.
They were taken pretty regularly through all the months. Even
the 3 stomachs secured in December show an average of 44 percent.
Probably few of these were caught on the wing, and their abundance
in the food indicates that this bird, like many others, forsakes its
usual style of feeding and goes to the ground to catch grasshoppers
whenever they are numerous. Two stomachs were entirely filled
with these insects, and in several others they amounted to over 90
percent of the contents.
Miscellaneous insects, consisting of caterpillars and moths, a few
bugs, flies, and a dragonfly, constituted 10 percent. Several stomachs
contained a number of moths, and one was entirely filled with them.
Not many birds eat these insects extensively in the adult form, while
the larve: (caterpillars) are a prominent feature of the diet of most
insectivorous birds. Besides insects, bones of some batrachian,
probably a tree frog, were found in three stomachs and an eggshell in
one. They amount to only a trifling percentage. Frogs or sala-
manders seem queer food for a flycatcher, but their bones have been
«Zoe, IV, pp. 57-58, 1893.
38301—Bull. 34—10-—3
84 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
found in the stomachs of several species of tree-haunting insectivorous
birds.
The following is a list of insects identified in the stomach of the
Arkansas kingbird:
COLEOPTERA.
Platynus sp. Epicauta sp.
Aphodius fimetarius. Hydaticus stagnalis.
Amphicoma ursina. Agabus sp.
Cremastochilus sp. Silpha ramosa.
Geotrupes sp. Staphylinus luteipes.
Megapenthes turbulentus. Balaninus sp.
HYMENOPTERA.
Apis mellifera. Andrena sp.
Prosopis affinis Cryptus sp.
Habropoda sp. Ophion bilineata.
Melissodes sp.
HEMIPTERA.
Euschistus servus. Calocoris rapidus.
Nezara sp. Eurygaster alternatus.
Podisus modestus.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the Arkansas kingbird
amounts to about 13 percent, and consists mostly of fruit. It was
all contained in 15 stomachs, of which 10 held elderberries (Sam-
bucus) and 5 various small berries not positively identified. One
also contained an olive, the only cultivated fruit found. A few
seeds also were noted.
SUMMARY.
In a summary of the economic significance of the food of this king-
bird it should be noted that the bird must be judged by its destruc-
tion of insects, for, since it does not eat any product of cultivation
to an appreciable extent, its vegetable food can be disregarded.
The offense of eating honey bees, so long laid at this bird’s door, is
practically disproved, for the more or less useless drones eaten far
outnumber the useful workers. The injury the kingbird does, if
any, is by eating predaceous beetles and parasitic Hymenoptera,
but it takes these in such small numbers as to leave no reasonable
doubt that the bird is one of our most useful species.
CASSIN KINGBIRD.
One other species of Tyrannus (1. vociferans), commonly known as
the Cassin kingbird, occurs in the southern half of the State, where
it frequents orchards and ranches. It is.less abundant than the
Arkansas kingbird, but has similar habits, and an examination of
several stomachs shows that the food of the two species is practically
the same,
FLYCATCHER FAMILY. 35
SAY PHOEBE.
(Sayornis saya.)
While the Say phoebe inhabits California throughout the year, it
is locally wanting in summer in many places west of the Sierra. In
the fruit-growing regions visited, the writer met with only one indi-
vidual during the spring and summer months, but these phoebes
became fairly numerous in September, and increased in numbers as
the season advanced. The investigation of their food was based
upon the examination of 86 stomachs, taken in every month from
September to March inclusive, and 2 taken in June. This bird was
shown to be one of the most exclusively insectivorous of the family,
although no stomachs were available for the months when insects
were most numerous. The food consists of 98 percent of animal
matter and 2 percent of vegetable.
Animal food.—As a number of predaceous ground beetles (Carab-
ide) were in these stomachs, a separate account was kept of them.
They amount to somewhat over 5 percent, and are pretty evenly dis-
tributed through the months, except February, in which 25 percent
were eaten. These were in one stomach, which they half filled, and
as only 2 stomachs were taken in that month, the percentage was
probably made too great. It seems impossible that all these beetles,
which are rather averse to flying, could have been caught on the wing,
especially since none were taken in the warmer months, when they
are most active. In the other beetle food, which amounts to 10
percent, a few ladybirds (Coccinellide) were found. These and the
ground beetles must be recorded against the bird, but the fault is not
serious. The remainder of the beetles were all of injurious or neutral
species.
Hymenoptera, including quite a number of ants, amount to 35
percent, and were contained in 69 stomachs, or over 78 percent of
the whole. This illustrates the statement that these birds are wasp-
catchers rather than flycatchers. ‘A few parasitic species were
among the rest. Bugs, as is so often the case, were eaten quite
regularly, but in rather small quantities. They amount to about 5
percent of the food, and belong to the following families: Stinkbugs
(Pentatomide), the squash-bug family (Coreidz), leaf bugs (Cap-
side), negro bugs (Corimelenide), leafhoppers (Jasside), tree hop-
pers (Membracide), and assassin bugs (Reduviide). These last are
reckoned as useful insects, but they were identified in only one
stomach.
Flies (Diptera) aggregate 10 percent of the food, and were eaten
mostly in the months of January, March, and November; but proba-
bly this is accidental and would not hold true with a greater number
of stomachs. The only family identified was that of the common
36 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
house fly (Muscide). One stomach was entirely filled with them.
Moths and caterpillars (Lepidoptera) appeared in 27 stomachs, and
amount to something more than 10 percent of the food. Moths were
found in 15 stomachs and caterpillars in 12. This is contrary to the
usual rule that in this order of insects the larve are eaten by birds
much more freely than are the adults.
Grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera) are eaten by the Say
phoebe to the extent of 14 percent, which is the highest record of
any flycatcher except the Arkansas kingbird. These, taken in con-
nection with the ground beetles, ants, and caterpillars, indicate a
somewhat terrestrial habit of feeding. Nearly 40 percent of the
grasshoppers consumed were taken in September, after which they
steadily decreased in quantity. One stomach was entirely filled with
them.
Miscellaneous insects, spiders, and a few other creatures make up
the rest of the animal food, about 8 percent. Of these, spiders were
found in 10 stomachs, dragonflies in 5, sowbugs (Oniscus) in 1, and
another unidentified crustacean in 1.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the Say phoebe amounts to
2 percent, and is made up of a little fruit, a few seeds, and some
rubbish. One seed and a stem of a fig were the only indications of
cultivated fruit. Remains of elderberries were noted in 3 stomachs,
seeds in 4, pulp of a large seed or nut in 1, and rubbish in 4.
SUMMARY.
The economic relations of the Say phoebe depend wholly upon its
animal food, for it eats practically no vegetable matter of any inter-
est to man. That it takes a few useful insects can not be denied,
but the stomachs’ contents show that they are far outnumbered by
harmful species, and the balance is clearly in favor of the bird.
BLACK PHOEBE.
(Sayornis nigricans.)
The black phoebe inhabits the lower valleys of California, and in
most parts can be found throughout the year. For a nest: site it
selects the wall of a canyon, a shed, the overhanging eaves of a barn,
or, better still, a bridge. It has a pronounced preference for the vicin-
ity of water. Even a watering trough by the roadside usually has
its attendant phoebe.
While camping beside a stream in California, the writer observed
the feeding habits of the black phoebe. The nesting season was
over, and apparently the birds had nothing to do but capture food.
This they appeared to be doing all the time. In the morning, a
the first glimmer of daylight, a phoebe could always be seen flitting
FLYCATCHER FAMILY. 37
from rock to rock, and probably it caught an insect on each flight.
This activity was kept up all day. Even after supper, when it was
so dark that notes had to be written by the aid of the camp fire, the
phoebes were still hunting insects.
Observations like these convince any reasoning person that the
number of insects destroyed in a year by this species is something
enormous, and the examination of stomachs confirms field observa-
tions. This bird eats a higher percentage of insects than any fly-
catcher yet studied except the western wood pewee. For the study
of this phoebe’s food 333 stomachs were available, collected in every
month in the year and from various parts of the State. They show
99.39 percent of animal matter to 0.61 percent of vegetable.
Ammal food.—In examining the food contained in the stomachs of
the black phoebes, account was kept of the beetles that are generally
supposed to be useful, namely, the ground beetles (Carabide), the
ladybirds (Coccinellide), and the tiger beetles (Cicindelide). It was
found that these beetles were eaten pretty regularly throughout the
year; in fact, there is no month which does not show a certain per-
centage of them. The average for the year, however, is only 2.82,
or practically 3 percent, not a heavy tax on the useful beetles. Other
beetles, all more or less harmful, amount to 10 percent. They were
eaten in every month, and though the quantity varies to some extent,
the variation appears to be accidental.
Hymenoptera amount to over 35 percent of the yearly food. They
were found in 252 out of the 333 stomachs, and in 11 there was no
other food. They are eaten throughout the year. March is the
month of least consumption, with only 1 percent, while August shows
the maximum, nearly 60 percent. A few ants and several parasitic
species are eaten, but the great bulk of this item is made up of wild
bees and wasps. Nota trace of a honey bee was found in any stomach.
Hemiptera of several families were eaten to the extent of about 7
percent. They were pretty uniformly distributed through the food
of the year, except that none were taken in May, which, however, is
probably accidental. Four of these families are aquatic, which partly
explains why the bird is so fond of the vicinity of water. The Redu-
viide are insectivorous, and therefore useful. They were found in
but one stomach. The other families are vegetable feeders; all of
them likely to be harmful, and most of them pests. The plant lice
found in the food are rather unexpected, but, as already noted, fly-
catchers do not take all their food on the wing.
Flies (Diptera) were eaten by the black phoebe to the extent of
over 28 percent. They appear in every month, and range from 3
percent in August to 64 percent in April. They were found in 127
stomachs, 10 of which contained nothing else. The house-fly family
(Muscide), the crane flies (Tipulide), robber flies (Asilidz), and one
38 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
horsefly (Tabanide) were the only ones identified. Grasshoppers and
crickets are not extensively eaten by the phoebe. They amount to
about 24 percent for the year, being eaten rather irregularly; five
months show none at all. The greatest consumption was in April,
nearly 8 percent.
Moths and caterpillars are sitet to the extent of 8 percent. They
were found in 72 stomachs—moths in 38, caterpillars in 32, and both
in 2. A few unidentified insects and several miscellaneous ones,
principally dragonflies, with some spiders, make up the rest of the
animal food, 6 percent. Dragonflies are taken quite frequently, but
generally in no great numbers. One stomach was entirely filled with
them, and several were nearly so. The fact is, these insects are so
large that often a single one fills a phoebe’s stomach. These insects
are too strong and agile upon the wing to be captured by anything less
expert than a flycatcher, and in the few instances where they appear in
other birds’ stomachs they were probably. found dead. The spiders
eaten by the phoebe are perhaps snapped from the tops of weeds as
the bird flies over, or taken from the web. While quite frequently
eaten, they form only a small percentage of the diet.
The following is a list of insects identified in the stomachs of the
black phoebe:
COLEOPTERA.
Elaphrus riparius. Carpophilus hemipterus.
Triexna longula. Heterocerus tristis.
Bradycellus rupestris.
Laccobius ellipticus.
Philonthus pubes.
Hippodamia convergens.
Coccinella transversoguttata.
Coccinella californica.
Chilocorus orbus.
Cryptorhopalum apicale.
Hister bimaculatus.
Saprinus obscurus.
Saprinus lugens.
Saprinus lubricus.
Hygrotrechus sp.
Canthon sp.
Aphodius granarius.
Aphodius vittatus.
Aphodius ungulatus.
Amphicoma ursina.
Gastroidea sp.
Lina scripta.
Diabrotica soror.
Blapstinus pulverulentus.
Corphyra sp.
Notoxus alamedzx.
HEMIPTERA.
Largus succinctus.
In addition to the above species the following families of Hemiptera
were identified:
Giant water bugs (Belostomatide).
Creeping water bugs (Naucoride).
Chinch-bug family (Lygzeide).
Stink bugs (Pentatomide).
Broad-shouldered water striders (Veliide). Leathoppers (Jassidee).
Water striders (Iydrobatide).
Assassin bugs (Reduviidw).
Leaf bugs (Capsidix).
Red bugs (Pyrrhocoride),
Tree hoppers (Membracide).
Jumping plant lice (Psyllide).
Plant lice (Aphidide).
FLYCATCHER FAMILY. 89
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food of the black phoebe amounts
altogether to only 0.61 percent, and may be classified under two heads:
Fruit and other vegetable matter. Fruit forms 0.34 percent, and
the only species identified were elderberries in 19 stomachs, dogwood
(Cornus) in one, and Rubus (blackberries or raspberries) in one.
This last may have been cultivated; and some fruit skins found in 1
stomach may also have been of a domestic variety. Miscellaneous
vegetable food consists of poison oak seeds in 2 stomachs, a catkin in
1, and rubbish in 1.
Food of young.—Among the 333 stomachs of the black phoebe were
those of 24 nestlings, varying in age from 1 to 2 weeks. Their food
was tabulated by itself to ascertain if it differed from that of the
adults. No great difference was apparent in the kind of food eaten
nor in the relative proportions. One point, however, was noted.
The percentage of animal food was a little lower than in the adults;
not because the young had intentionally eaten any vegetable food,
but because, along with other food, the parents had fed a quantity of
rubbish, dead grass, leaves, and the like. The same apparent care-
lessness as to the food of their young has been observed in other
species. :
SUMMARY.
In a summary of the food of the black phoebe the vegetable part
may be dismissed as unimportant. Of the insect food we have less
than 3 percent of theoretically useful beetles, a few parasitic Hymen-
optera, and a few dragonflies, say, 5 percent in all, to offset 94
percent of harmful species. This phoebe is an efficient insect
destroyer, and is an invaluable asset to the people of California or any
other State it may inhabit. It should be rigidly protected and in
every way encouraged.
WESTERN WOOD PEWEE.
( Myiochanes richardsoni.)
The western wood pewee is a familiar sight in the fruit-growing
sections of the State, where its time is spent in a tireless search for
insects. Wherever in the orchard there is a dead limb, there on the
- outermost twig perches the pewee, and from its lookout sallies forth
to snatch up any luckless insect that comes within range. Several
such perches are usually to be found not far apart, and the bird
occupies them in turn as the game becomes scarce in one or the other
place. The little western flycatcher (Empidonaz dificilis) has the
same habits, and shares these watchtowers with the pewee. Observa-
tion of one of these perches for three minutes, watch in hand, fur-
nished a good idea of the bird’s industry. In the first minute 1t took
7 insects, in the second 5, and in the third 6, or 18 in the three minutes.
40 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Apparently it had been doing the same thing for an hour, perhaps all
the morning. These observations were made at 10 a. m., when the
air was warm and insects were on the wing. Either the same bird
or another was watched the next day at 9 a. m. near the same spot,
and 17 captures were noted in eight minutes. This morning was
cooler, and fewer insects were abroad than on the previous day. The
mean of these two observations is 4 insects per minute. If the bird
keeps this up foreven ten hours a day, the total is 2,400 insects. It
hardly seems possible that one bird could eat so many unless they
were very small, but this pewee is rarely seen when it is not actively
hunting. When the young are in the nest, the parents must make
great havoc with insects if the nestlings are fed at the above rate.
The pewee remains in California only about six months in the year,
but fortunately this is the season when insects are most numerous.
One hundred and thirty-seven stomachs, taken in the months from
April to September inclusive, were available for examination.
Animal matter formed 99.91 percent of the contents and vegetable
matter 0.09 percent, or less than one-tenth of 1 percent. The per-
centage of animal matter is the highest yet found in the food of any
flycatcher.
Ammal food.—Beetles amount to about 5 percent of the food.
With the exception of Carabide, found in 4 stomachs, and Coccinel-
lide, in 5, all were either harmful or neutral species.
The following beetles were identified:
Coccinella 9-notata nevadica. Aphodius vittatus.
Coccinella californica. Agrilus sp. Dov.
Coccinella transversoguttata. Agriotes sp.
Hippodamia ambigua. Gastroidea sp.
EMippodamia convergens. Blapstinus sp.
Hister bimaculatus. Ptilinus basalis.
Saprinus plenus. Baris rubripes.
Carpophilus hemipterus.
Hymenoptera aggregate over 39 percent, and are of wild species—
that is, there are no domestic bees among them. They were found
in 93 stomachs, and in 14 there was nothing else. Parasitic species
were identified in 7 stomachs and ants in only 2—an unusually small
record for ants, which are favorite food with flycatchers.
Hemiptera, or bugs, are evidently not esteemed as an article of
diet by this bird, for they amount to less than 2 percent of the food.
None were eaten in April or May, but nearly half the whole number
were taken in August.
Diptera amount to nearly 40 percent, slightly exceeding Hymenop-
tera. No other flycatcher has yet been noted whose food contained
more Diptera than Ilymenoptera; hence the name flycatcher is pecu-
liarly applicable to this pewee. Diptera were found in 84 stomachs,
FLYCATCHER FAMILY. 41
and 20 contained no other food. This would seem to indicate that
flies are preferred to other insects. The families Muscide, Tipulide,
and Asilide were recognized.
Caterpillars and moths amount to nearly 5 percent. Though not
taken in great numbers, they are eaten regularly through the season.
September shows the greatest consumption—over 14 percent. Moths
were found in 18 stomachs and caterpillars in 4. One stomach was
entirely filled with the remains of moths.
Sundry insects, amounting to nearly 9 percent, make up the rest
of the animal food. Dragonflies were found in 7 stomachs, and 1
contained nothing else. EEphemerids were in 4 stomachs, lace-winged
flies in 1, spiders in 3, and the so-called jointed spiders in 1.
The character of the food shows that it is taken on the wing more
exclusively than that of any other bird yet examined. Of the crea-
tures that do not fly, ants were found in 2 stomachs, caterpillars in
4, spiders in 3, and jointed spiders in 1. As some ants fly, these
may have been taken in mid-air, but they were too badly broken to
determine this point.
Vegetable food.—Vegetable matter was found in 4 stomachs, but
in 3 of these it was mere rubbish. One contained seeds of the elder-
berry, the only vegetable food observed.
SUMMARY.
The western wood pewee, while often an inhabitant of the orchard,
does not deign to taste of its product, if the above record may be
assumed to be conclusive. Its diet is composed almost exclusively
of insects, and of these a large majority are harmful species.
WESTERN FLYCATCHER.
(Empidonaz difficilis.)
The western flycatcher avoids alike the hot valleys and the high
mountains of California during the warmer months, but is more gen-
erally distributed in migration. For a nesting site it selects a tree,
a crevice among the roots of an overturned stump, a bracket under a
porch, a beam under a bridge, or a hole under an overhanging sod on
the bank of a stream. It has much the same liking for water as the
black phoebe, though even more pronounced. A small stream run-
ning through or near an orchard appears to supply ideal conditions
for this little flycatcher, as the orchard makes an excellent foraging
ground, and if it does not afford a nesting site, the bank of the stream
will, The bird is quiet and unobtrusive, and often the first notice
one has of its presence is to see it dart from the end of a near-by
twig into the air in pursuit of an insect. It seems to be thus engaged
all day; in fact, the writer has never seen one of these birds when it
was not in search of food.
492 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
In the laboratory investigation of the food of the western fly-
catcher 141 stomachs were examined. They were collected from
March to October inclusive, and probably give a fair idea of the
bird’s food for these months. Analysis gives 99.28 percent of animal
food to 0.72 percent of vegetable; in other words, there was less than
three-fourths of 1 percent of vegetable matter. Only one other
flycatcher, the western wood pewee, eats so little vegetable food.
Animal food.—In this analysis a separate account was kept of
the ladybird beetles (Coccinellide). This bird appears to eat more
of them than does any other flycatcher, but the number for the
whole season is not large enough to be very serious. The greatest
consumption occurred in August, a little more than 7 percent. The
average for the season is 2} percent. Other beetles amount to
nearly 6 percent, nearly all harmful, the exception being a few
ground beetles (Carabide).
Hymenoptera form the largest constituent of the food of this as
of most other flycatchers. They amount to over 38 percent, and are
an important item during every month of the bird’s stay on its sum-
mer range. The highest percentage is in March, 61; but as only
3 stomachs were taken in that month, the record can not be con-
sidered as final. June shows 52 percent, and is probably nearer the
true maximum, although August and September do not fall much
below. Ants were found in 14 stomachs, and parasitic Hymenoptera
in but 2. Hymenoptera in general were found in 99 stomachs, and
6 contained nothing else. No honeybees were identified.
Hemiptera (bugs) amount to nearly 9 percent of the food. They
were found in 49 stomachs, 2 of which were entirely filled with them.
The greatest number were taken in August, when they constituted
29 percent. The following families were identified:
Stink-bug family (Pentatomide). Leafhopper family (Jasside).
Chinch-bug family (Lygeide). Tree-hopper family (Membracide).
Leaf-bug family (Capside).
Diptera amount to a little more than 31 percent of the whole food.
They rank next to Hymenoptera, and, like those insects, are taken
very regularly during every month of the bird’s stay in the State.
While October is the month of maximum consumption, 47 percent,
several other months are but little below. Only 3 families were
identified: The crane flies (Tipulidae), the soldier flies (Stratiomyiide),
and the house flies (Muscida).
Lepidoptera, in the shape of moths and caterpillars, amount to
about 7 percent for the year, and were found in every month except
March. They appeared in 36 stomachs, of which only 7 contained
the adult insects—moths—and 29 the larve or caterpillars. This
taste is in contrast with that of the black phoebe and the wood pewee,
FLYCATCHER FAMILY. 43
which prefer moths, but is quite in accordance with the general rule
among insectivorous birds. Special interest attaches to this item
of the bird’s food from the fact that larve of the codling moth were
found in 3 stomachs. In one 15 were counted, which amounted to
89 percent of the food. In another they were too badly broken to
be counted, but formed 55 percent of the contents. In the third
only 1 was found, amounting to 3 percent. Evidently these
insects were hibernating in a crevice in the bark of a tree or some
similar place, and were there discovered by the flycatcher.
A few unidentified insects and some spiders make up the remainder
of the animal food—about 6 percent. Spiders were found in 19
cases—in 1 stomach amounting to 70 percent—and these, with
the caterpillars, particularly the codling-moth larve, show that a
considerable percentage of the food of this bird is not caught on the
wing.
The following is a list of insects identified from the stomachs of
the western flycatcher:
COLEOPTERA.
Aleochara bimaculata. Gastroidea cyanea.
Hippodamia ambigua. Diabrotica soror.
Hippodamia convergens. Monozia sordida.
Coccinella californica. Epitriz sp.
Scymnus sp. Eulabis rufipes.
Telephorus divisus. Blapstinus ruficeps.
Aphodius sp. Deporaus glastinus.
Limonius infuscatus. Balaninus sp.
DIPTERA.
Stratiomyia maculosa.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Carpocapsa pomonella.
Vegetable food.—Vegetable matter was found in 16 stomachs,
though some of it could not properly be called food. One stomach
contained seeds of Rubus fruit (blackberries or raspberries) ; 7,
seeds of elderberries; 1, the skin of an unidentified fruit and a
seed of tarweed (Madia); while 6 held rubbish. The Rubus fruit
might have been cultivated, but probably was not.
Food of young.—Among the stomachs whose contents have been
discussed were those of 15 nestlings, varying in age from 48 hours to
2 weeks, which show no marked differences from those of adults.
Only 2 of these stomachs contained any vegetable matter; in 1
was 15 percent of rubbish; in the other 3 percent. Gravelstones
were found in several cases, and have been observed in the young
of other insectivorous birds, even when not found in adults of the
same species.
44 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
The young in one nest were fed 24 times in an hour. Owing to
the nest’s location the number of nestlings was not ascertained. If
there were four, as is probable, and the feeding was continued fourteen
hours, each was fed 84 times during the day.
SUMMARY. .
From the foregoing it is evident that neither the farmer nor the
fruit grower has anything to fear from the western flycatcher. Prac-
tically it eats no vegetable food, and its animal diet contains less
than the normal proportion of useful elements. It should be rigidly
protected at all seasons.
OTHER FLYCATCHERS.
Four or more other species of the genus Empidonaz occur within
the limits of California. They are not so domestic as the one just
discussed, but their food habits are quite similar. One, £. trailla, is
locally quite abundant, but chooses the willows along water courses
for its home rather than the orchards. The others are less widely
distributed and therefore of less economic importance. A few stom-
achs of each species have been examined, but they indicate no remark-
able differences in food habits from those of the western flycatcher.
HORNED LARK.
(Otocoris alpestris chrysolema, rubida, and other subspecies.)
Not only in California, but in a considerable portion of temperate
North America, some form of the horned lark occurs wherever plain
or valley presents the condition suited to its peculiar needs. The
former generic name, Eremophila, or desert lover, was peculiarly
appropriate, but unfortunately it was necessary to displace it. Bare,
level ground with scant herbage and no trees or shrubs appears to be
the ideal condition for the horned lark. While on the Pacific coast
they are not called upon to endure excessive cold, yet elsewhere they.
endure low temperatures not only with indifference but with apparent
pleasure. The writer has met them on an open prairie when the
temperature was nearly 30 degrees below zero, and though a fierce gale
was blowing from the northwest they did not exhibit the least sign of
discomfort, but rose and flew against the wind, then circled around
and alighted on the highest and most windswept place they could
find. Probably they remain through the night in these bleak spots,
for they may frequently be seen there after sunset. Most animals
seek shelter from wind and cold, even though it be nothing but the
leeward side of a ridge or hummock, but the horned lark refuses to
do even this, and by preference alights on the top of the knoll where
HORNED LARK. 45
the wind cuts the worst. It seems strange that in so small a body
the vital heat can be maintained under such adverse conditions, but
if one of these birds be examined, its body will be found completely
covered with a thick layer of fat, like the blubber on certain marine
animals. This indicates that horned larks have plenty to eat, and
that their food is largely carbonaceous. The necessity for such heat-
producing food does not exist in the case of the California horned
larks, but nevertheless they eat the same substances as those in a
colder climate, although probably in reduced quantities.
The food of this bird consists largely of seeds picked up from the
ground. Very naturally a bird that subsists on scattered seeds would
pick up kernels of grain if they came in its way, and some persons
have declared that this bird does serious damage to newly sown grain.
As they sometimes associate in immense flocks, they may do harm
when large numbers alight on a field before the grain has been har-
rowed in. Drilling the grain, which is the modern method, will ob-
viate this trouble. Most of the grain eaten by these larks is waste
from the harvest field.
For the investigation of the food of the horned larks of California,
259 stomachs, collected in every month except May, were available.
While very irregularly distributed through the year, they probably
give a fair idea of the annual food. In the analysis of the contents of
these stomachs, approximately 9 percent of animal food was found to
91 percent of vegetable.
Animal food.—The horned lark is essentially a vegetarian, but eats
a considerable number of insects during the reproductive season and
feeds many to the young. Most of the animal food was taken between
March and June, inclusive. The latter has the highest record, nearly
30 percent. As this lark is an early breeder, it begins eating insects
early in the season. After June there is a rapid decrease in animal
food, and the stomachs taken in November contained none whatever.
For convenience this part of the diet may be divided into the two
items, beetles and other insects. Beetles amount to about 5 percent.
Like the animal food in general, they were found in greatest quanti-
ties in the stomachs taken from March to June, the latter month
showing a little over 20 percent. While a few predaceous ground
beetles were eaten, the great bulk of these insects were of harmful
species, among which were some snout beetles or weevils. The re-
mainder of the animal food, 4 percent, consisted of bugs, ants, cater-
pillars, and a few miscellaneous insects and spiders. Of these, the
greater number are either harmful or neutral.
Vegetable food.—The great interest in the food of the horned lark
centers about the vegetable part. This consists of grain and weed
seed. Corn was found in only one stomach. Wheat was contained
46 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
in 21 stomachs, taken in four months: January, February, June, and
July. The irregularity in eating grain would seem to indicate that it
is not a favorite food. The midsummer records may be explained on
the ground that these are the harvest months in California. But it is
not supposable that wheat could be obtained in January and Febru-
ary and not in December or March. The greatest amount was eaten
in February, 74 percent, but only 5 stomachs were taken in this
month, and probably a greater number would have given a lower per-
centage. The average for the year is 9 percent. Of all the grains,
however, oats are the favorite with the horned larks, as they are with
so many other seed-eating birds. They were eaten much more regu-
larly than wheat and in greater quantities. They were found in 142
stomachs, and November gives the highest record, 77 percent, while
June has the lowest, a little over 8 percent. The average for the year
is 31 percent. If all these oats were taken from the farmer’s crop it
might be a serious tax, but evidently only a few of them are so ob-
tained. Those eaten in March may have been from newly sown
fields, and those in June and July from the ripening crop, but the rest
must have been waste grain gleaned from the fields, Moreover, Cal-
ifornia is covered with wild and volunteer oats, which, ripening at
other times than the cultivated ones, furnish an inexhaustible supply
of food for many birds. It is certain that most of the oats eaten by
the California horned larks are either waste or volunteer grain, and
have no economic value.
The particular food of horned larks is the seeds of weeds and grasses.
These aggregate 51 percent of the annual diet, being eaten in every
month, and constitute a respectable percentage of the food in each.
The month of least consumption is January, when they amount to over
19 percent; August shows the maximum quantity, nearly 99 percent,
but as only 4 stomachs were taken in this month, probably ample
material would reduce this high percentage. It is by the consump-
tion of weed seed that the horned lark makes amends for doing a little
damage to grain. The quantity of seeds of noxious weeds destroyed
annually by this species throughout the country is very great. Fruit
does not appear in the stomachs of horned larks. The bird asks noth-
ing of the orchardist—not even the shelter of his trees.
SUMMARY.
In the final analysis of the food habits of the horned lark there is
but one tenable ground of complaint, namely, that it does some dam-
age to newly sown grain. This can be largely remedied by harrowing
in immediately after sowing, and can be wholly prevented by drilling.
The bird’s insect diet is practically all in its favor, and in eating weed
seed it confers a decided benefit on the farmer. It should be ranked
JAY FAMILY. 47
as one of our useful species, and protected by law and by public
opinion.*
JAY FAMILY.
The jays have acquired a questionable reputation owing to the fact
that they pilfer the nests of other birds and prey upon the farmer’s
crops. That at times they are guilty of both of these sins can not be
denied. On the first of these counts the California jay is far more
culpable than its eastern relative and does entirely too much nest
robbing for the best interests of the State. It is also a despoiler of
fruit in its season, and in this respect should be restrained. On the
other hand, jays are conspicuous and ornamental elements in the bird
fauna, and inasmuch as they consume many harmful insects, should
not be wholly condemned.
Some half dozen species and subspecies of jays occur in California.
The food of the two most important species is discussed in the fol-
lowing pages.
STELLER JAY.
(Cyanocitta stelleri frontalis and carbonacea.)
The Steller jay inhabits the mountains and forested areas of Cali-
fornia throughout the year. It sometimes ventures to the edges of
the valleys and occasionally visits orchards for a taste of fruit, of
which it is very fond, but in general it keeps to the hills and wilder
parts of the canyons. It is fond of coniferous trees and is likely to
be found wherever these abound. Where ranches have been estab-
lished far up the canyons among the hills, this jay visits the ranch
buildings. While it has all the characteristics of the jay family, it is
rather more shy than either the California jay or the eastern bluejay.
To determine the nature of the food of this species, 93 stomachs
were available. They were distributed over the whole year except
February and April. The contents consisted of animal food to the
extent of 28 percent, and vegetable matter 72 percent.
Animal food.—Beetles amount to a little more than 8 percent:
Carabide were found in 8 stomachs; all the others were of noxious
species. One stomach was half filled with a species of weevil or snout
beetle (Thricolepis inornata), of which 35 individuals were counted,
and there were probably more. Hymenoptera amount to about 11
percent and are the largest item of animal food. They were found in
30 stomachs altogether, and 2 were entirely filled with them. Ants
were found in only 2 stomachs. Three honey bees were identified, one
in each of 3 stomachs. One was a worker, another a drone, and the
@ For a more complete account of the food habits of the horned lark, see Bulletin
No. 23, Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, The Horned Larks and
their Relation to Agriculture, by W. L. McAtee, 1905.
48 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
third indeterminate. None of the smaller parasitic Hymenoptera
were identified. The greater part of this item of food consisted of
wasps and wild bees, which would indicate that this bird is an ener-
getic and expert insect catcher.
Hemiptera (bugs) are evidently not in favor with the Steller jay.
They were found in but few stomachs and in small numbers and
amount for the year to little more than 1 percent. Pentatomide, or
stinkbugs, and Scutelleride, or shield bugs, were the only families
identified. Diptera form only four-tenths of 1 percent. They were
found in only 3 stomachs, taken at the same place and at the same
hour. They consisted of crane flies (Tipulidz) filled with eggs.
Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) aggregate about 3.5 percent.
They appeared in 28 stomachs and were the sole contents in one.
Caterpillars and moths amount to a little more than 2 percent. The
former were found in 17 stomachs and the latter in 2.
The following insects from the stomachs of the Steller jay were
identified :
COLEOPTERA.
Sinodendron rugosum. Clerus sphegus.
Dichelonycha fulgida. Thricolepis inornata.
HYMENOPTERA.
Apis mellifera.
Of miscellaneous creatures, spiders were identified in 3 stomachs,
raphidians in one, and sow bugs (Omscus) in one; altogether they
make up about one-half of 1 percent. Remains of vertebrates amount
to a little more than 1 percent. They consist of hair and skin of a
mammal found in one stomach, two bits of bone, probably of a frog,
in one, and eggshells in 13. This last item is the worst in this jay’s
record, since it indicates that the bird is guilty of eating the eggs of
smaller birds; but even this is not as bad as it looks. Only 6 of these
egg-eating records occurred in June, the nesting month. All the rest
were in September or later and were probably old shells picked up in
abandoned nests or about ranch buildings or camp grounds.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain,
mast, and miscellaneous matter. Fruit amounts to 22 percent and
was found in 55 stomachs. Prunes were identified in 2 stomachs,
cherries in 2, grapes in2, Rubus fruits in 15, strawberries in 1, elder-
berries in 15, bay laurel fruit in 1, unknown wild fruit in 2, and fruit
pulp, not fully identified but thought to be of cultivated varieties, in
16 stomachs. Thus 38 stomachs held fruit supposed to be cultivated.
This number includes all containing Rubus fruits, which probably were
not all cultivated—perhaps none of them were. The Steller jay un-
doubtedly cats considerable fruit, but most of its range lies in unset-
tled areas, and it is too shy to visit orchards, except those close to the
.. JAY FAMILY. 49
timber. For the present, then, or until it becomes more domestic,
the damage to cultivated fruit is likely to be small.
Grain amounts to 5 percent, and was found in 15 stomachs, dis-
tributed as follows: Wheat in 7, oats in 9, and barley in 1. Much of
the wheat was damaged, and, in fact, owing to the times of year, it
could not have been otherwise. The greatest amount of grain was
taken in June, 24 percent, and was probably picked up in the harvest
field. Many of the oats, perhaps all, were of the wild variety. The
chief food of this jay, however, is acorns, though occasionally it eats
other nuts or large seeds. Mast amounts to 42.5 percent of the yearly
diet, and was found in 38 stomachs. In some of them it reached 99
percent of the contents. In October and November it amounted to
76 percent, in December to 90, and in January to 99 percent. Even
in June, when other food was abundant, it was eaten to the extent
of nearly 10 percent, though none was found in the stomachs taken
in May or July. Very likely a considerable part of this was stolen
from the stores of the California woodpecker, for it is hardly probable
that the jays find acorns under the trees so late as June and so early
as August. It is true the jays themselves store up nuts to some
extent, but hardly on the scale indicated by the contents of their
stomachs when the acorn harvest is long past. Seeds, galls, and
miscellaneous matter make up the remainder of the vegetable food,
about 2.5 percent. In two stomachs taken near the ocean were tan-
gles of conferve and other seaweeds.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing analysis it will be seen that the food of the
Steller jay is of minor importance from an economic point of view.
In destroying beetles and Hymenoptera it performs some service,
but it destroys only a few. Of the order of Hemiptera, which con-
tains most of the worst pests of the orchardist and farmer, it eats
scarcely any. The Orthoptera, which are almost all harmful insects,
are eaten only sparingly, and the same applies to the rest of the
insect food. The destruction of birds’ eggs is the worst count against
the jay. But none were found, except in June, until September, when
it was too late in the season for fresh eggs to be obtainable. In June
17 birds were taken, and 6 of them, or 35 percent of the whole, appar-
ently had robbed birds’ nests. Now, it is evident that if 35 percent
of all the Steller jays in California each rob one bird’s nest every day
during the month of June the aggregate loss is very great.
So far as its vegetable food is concerned, this bird does little dam-
age. It is too shy to visit the more cultivated districts, and probably
will never take enough fruit or grain to become of economic impor-
tance. The other vegetable food it consumes is entirely neutral from
the economic standpoint.
38301—Bull. 3410-4
50 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
CALIFORNIA JAY.
(Aphelocoma californica.)
The California jay (Pl. III) occupies the warm chaparral-covered
lower slopes of the Sierra Nevada and Coast ranges and adjacent val-
leys. He has the same general traits of character as the eastern jay,
is the same noisy, rollicking fellow as that bird, and in California
occupies a corresponding position in bird society. While for the most
part a frequenter of woods and chaparral, he is by no means shy of
visiting orchards and gardens, and will come even to the farm
buildings if anything there interests him. A nest of the chipping
sparrow (Spizella passerina arizone), which was being watched for
notes on feeding, was robbed of its four nestlings early one morning
by a jay, although not more than 30 feet from the front door of a
house on the edge of the village. He is a persistent spy upon domes-
tic fowls and well knows the meaning of the cackle of a hen. A
woman whose home was at the mouth of a small ravine told the
writer that one of her hens had a nest under a bush a short distance
up the ravine from the cottage. A jay had found this out, and every
day when the hen went on her nest the jay would perch on a near-by
tree. As soon as the cackle of the hen was heard, both woman and
bird rushed to get the egg, but many times the jay reached the nest
first and secured the prize. A man living in the thickly settled out-
skirts of a town said that jays came every morning and perched on
some large trees that overhung his barnyards, where the hens had
their nests, and that it was necessary for some member of the family
to be on the lookout and start at the first sound of the hen’s voice or
a jay would get the egg.
A still worse trait of the jay was described by a young man en-
gaged in raising poultry on a ranch far up a canyon near wooded
hills. When his-white leghorn chicks were small, the jays would
attack and kill them by a few blows of the beak, and then peck
open the skull and eat the brains. In spite of all endeavors to
protect the chicks and to shoot the jays, his losses were serious.
As a fruit-eatcr the jay has few equals. He has a pronounced
taste for cherries and pruncs, and where orchards of these fruits are
near natural coverts, he will work unceasingly to carry off the fruit.
The writer remained in a cherry orchard in such a situation from 9
a. m. to 4 p. m. on several occasions during the cherry season, and
there was not an hour of that time that jays were not going away
with fruit and coming for more, in spite of the fact that every one
was shot that was unwary enough to give the collector a chance.
A small prune orchard on some bottomland, just where a small
ravine debouched from the wooded hills, was also watched. The
fruit was just ripening, and a continuous line of jays was seen pass
JAY FAMILY. 51
ing from the hills down through the ravine to the orchard, while a
return line, each jay bearing a prune, was flying up the ravine to the
woods, where, probably, the fruit was secreted and left to rot. The
jay habitually stores nuts and grain for future use, and no doubt,
urged by a misdirected instinct, lays up fruit for the same purpose,
but with a different result. Several hours later the jays were still
at work. On another occasion 7 jays were shot successively from
a prune tree loaded with fruit, and others continued to come, unter-
rified by the report of the gun or the dead bodies of their comrades
that lay on the ground beneath the tree.
The jay is also a notorious pilferer of nuts, notably almonds and
English walnuts. He is a skillful nutcracker, and extracts the ker-
nel deftly by holding the nut between his feet on a branch, while he
hammers it with his beak until he cracks the shell. Only the hard-
est nuts defy his powers. A gentleman who owned a large ranch
situated in a canyon and on the surrounding hills planted a dozen
or more almond trees to raise nuts for home use. When the trees
came to bearing, the jays each year carried all the nuts away before they
were ripe. “Although,” said the owner, ‘‘the trees bear a fair crop,
I never get a nut; the jays take them all.” Another gentleman
had a number of very large English walnut trees on his ranch, which
was at the upper end of a wooded canyon. While these nuts were
yet unripe, the jays destroyed a great many. Fortunately, when
mature, they seem to be too hard for the jays to peck through, so
the bulk of the crop was saved.
But the jays do not frequent orchards entirely for fruit. During
May and June the writer many times visited an apple orchard, the
leaves of which were badly infested with a small green caterpillar,
locally known as the canker worm. When a branch is jarred,
these insects let themselves down to the ground on a thread spun
for the purpose. Many jays were seen to fly into the orchard, alight
in a tree, and then almost immediately drop to the ground. Obser-
vation showed that the caterpillars, disturbed by the shock of the
bird’s alighting on a branch, dropped, and that the birds immedi-
ately followed and gathered them in. These caterpillars were found
in the stomachs of several jays, in one case to the extent of 90 percent
of the contents.
_ For the laboratory investigation of the food of the California jay,
326 stomachs were used. They were distributed through every
month, but the greater number were taken from May to September,
inclusive. As many of them as possible were-collected about orchards,
gardens, ranch buildings, and stock yards. In the first analysis the
food divides into 27 percent of animal matter and 73 percent of
vegetable. The greatest percentage of animal food occurs in April,
when it reaches 70 percent. After that it decreases gradually to
52 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
January, when it falls to its minimum of a little less than 5 percent.
Vegetable food, on the contrary, is most sparingly eaten in April and
most abundantly in January.
Animal food.—As the jay is largely a ground feeder, careful ac-
count was kept of the predaceous ground beetles (Carabide). In
May they amount to 10 percent of the food and to nearly as much
in February; but in the other months they are insignificant. The
total for the year is 2.5 percent. Other beetles, all either harmful
or neutral, amount to a little more than 8 percent. They are eaten
rather irregularly through the year. April shows the greatest con-
sumption, nearly 31 percent, and January the least, only a trace.
Hymenoptera, in the shape of wasps, bees, and ants, amount to a
little less than 5 percent. They were contained in 189 stomachs
and were distributed as follows: Honey bees in 9, ants in 27, other
Hymenoptera in 159. These figures illustrate the fact that a bird
will eat a certain article of food very often, but in small quantities.
While Hymenoptera amount to less than 5 percent of the food, they
were found in nearly 58 percent of the stomachs. The honey bees,
20 in number, were found in 9 stomachs, and, what is very singular,
all were workers. Birds that eat honey bees usually select the
drones, but the jay appears to have chosen the workers. Fortu-
nately he does not appear to eat many.
Hemiptera were eaten to the extent of less than one-half of 1 per-
cent. One stomach contained 2 black olive scales (Saissetia olex).
Diptera seem even less acceptable than bugs as an article of food.
In July, the month of greatest consumption, there were less than 1
percent.
Lepidoptera (moths and caterpillars) amount to 2.5 percent. They
were eaten in every month, mainly in the caterpillar stage. May was
the month when the greatest number was eaten, nearly 10 percent.
The most interesting point, however, in connection with this item of
food is that 12 pupx of the codling moth were found distributed
through 8 stomachs. This is a most unexpected service from a bird
of the jay’s habits, and it may be said that a little work of this kind
will cover a multitude of sins in other directions.
Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten to the extent
of 4.5 percent. Most of them were taken in July, August, and Sep-
tember. As usual, August stands first, with a consumption of nearly
17 percent, and one stomach contained the remains of 41 individuals.
Melanoplus devastator was the only species identified. As the jay is,
to a great extent, an inhabitant of the woods, it was natural that its
stomach should contain quite a number of the brown wood cricket.
A mole cricket also was found in one stomach. Orthoptera were
found in 151 stomachs and formed the total food in one. When they
JAY FAMILY. 53
are eaten so often, it is surprising that they do not form a larger
percentage of the food.
A few miscellaneous creatures, such as raphidians, spiders, snails,
etc., form less than one-half of 1 percent of the food.
The following is a list of insects identified in the stomachs of the
California jay:
COLEOPTERA.
Amara conflata. Diabrotica sp.
Silpha ramosa. Coniontis robusta.
Limonius fulvipes. Blapstinus rufipes.
Perothops witticki. Sciopithes obscurus.
Onthophagus sp. Balaninus sp.
HEMIPTERA.
Sinea diadema. Saissetia olex.
HYMENOPTERA.
Apis mellifera.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Carpocapsa pomonella,
ORTHOPTERA.
Melanoplus devastator.
Besides the insects and other invertebrates already discussed, the
jay eats some vertebrates. The remains consisted of bones or feathers
of birds in 8 stomachs, eggshells in 38, bones of small mammals
(mice and shrews) in 11, and bones of reptiles and batrachians in 13
stomachs. In destroying small mammals the jay is conferring an
unmixed good, as practically all of them are injurious. His appetite
for reptiles and batrachians, however, is unfortunate. These crea-
tures, being mostly insectivorous, are very useful. Probably, how-
ever, their ranks are not seriously thinned by the jay. Of those eaten,
9 were lizards, one a snake, one a frog, and 2 others were batrachians,
but could not be further identified. The great interest in the jay’s
vertebrate food, however, centers about the remains of birds and
eggs. Of the 46 stomachs containing these remains, 17 were taken
between the middle of May and the middle of July, and, as this period
practically covers the nesting season in California, all may be con-
sidered as from the nests of wild birds robbed by the jay. The others
represent either the eggs of domestic fowls or old eggshells. In the
above period 95 stomachs were collected, of which 17, or 18 percent,
contained eggs or remains of young birds. If we may infer, as seems
reasonable, that 18 percent of the California jays rob birds’ nests
every day during the nesting season, then we must admit that the
jays are a tremendous factor in preventing the increase of our com-
mon birds. Mr. Joseph Grinell, of Pasadena, after careful observa-
tion, estimates the number of this species in California at about
54 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
126,000. This is probably a low estimate. If 18 percent of this
number, or 22,680 jays, each robs a nest of eggs or young daily for a
period of sixty days from the middle of May to the middle of July, the
total number of nests destroyed in California by this one species every
year is 1,360,800. These figures are somewhat startling, representing
as they do an enormous number of useful birds, and it is to be hoped
they exaggerate the damage. For the present, however, they must
stand for what they are worth. More data are necessary in order to
determine fully the accuracy of the figures. Little weight attaches
to the destruction of the eggs of domestic fowls by this jay, since in
most cases it is easily preventable.
Vegetable food.—Aside from a few miscellaneous items, that alto-
gether amount to less than 1 percent, the jay’s vegetable food may be
classed under three heads: Grain, fruit, and mast. Owing to the
economic importance of this food the full tabulation is given below:
Month. | Grain. | Fruit. fanny Month. | Grain. | Fruit. | eens
January..... 9. 40 9. 00 74.90 || August.....-. 18.73 | 48.53 0. 21
February....| 6.43 |........ 69.14 || September....| 24.26 | 19.89) 31.65
paete Bh 27.00 || October. ..... 20! |naseiedeal’ BBUOr
0: aca ec eee 24.75 || November... .|....-... 11.14] 66.29
61. 41 . 68 |} December. ...}.....-.- 17.50 | 73.00
51. 29 2. 22
44.94 .19 Average.| 11.73 | 22.05 | 38.22
It will be seen that March holds the highest record for grain. This
was probably picked up from fields newly sown. After that, not
much is eaten until June, when the harvest begins. From that time
on, grain is an important article of diet, and isobtained by gleaning in
the harvested fields. It makes a sudden drop at the end of Septem-
ber, for at that time the acorn crop comes in. Grain was found in
95 stomachs, of which 56 contained oats; 34, corn; 2, wheat; 2,
barley; and 1, grain not further identified. Many of the oats were
of the wild variety.
Fruit was found in 270 stomachs. Of these, cherries were identi-
fied in 37, prunes in 25, apples in 5, grapes in 2, pears in 2, peaches
in 1, gooseberries in 2, figs in 1, blackberries or raspberries in 71,
elderberries in 42, manzanita in 4, cascara in 1, mistletoe in 1, and
fruit pulp not’further identified in 76. It will be noted that most
of the fruit was eaten in the five months from May to September,
inclusive. All found in November, December, and January was
fruit pulp without seeds, evidently old fruit left on the trees. All
the small fruits, as raspberries and elderberries, were taken during
the summer months. The raspberries may have been either wild
or cultivated, and were probably both; but in any case it is safe to
say that half of the fruit eaten was of wild varieties and of no eco-
nomic value.
JAY FAMILY. 55
Mast forms the largest item of the jay’s food. This fact has some
economic interest, since mast possesses considerable value as food
for stock, especially hogs. A glance at the table will show the high
percentages for the eight months from September to April inclusive,
and then the sudden drop to the low rank it holds for the rest of the
year. While the average consumption for the year is 38 percent,
for these eight months alone it rises to nearly 57 percent, or more
than half of the whole food. Doctor Merriam says that by the
Indians this jay is called the oak planter. There is no doubt that
all jays unconsciously aid in planting forest trees. Like the Cali-
fornia woodpecker they habitually store up nuts and other large
seeds, though unlike that bird they do not prepare storage places,
but place them in forks of trees, cracks in old stumps or logs, behind
loose pieces of bark, or bury them in the ground. Nuts are often
dropped when being carried to a place of concealment, and sprout
and grow to renew the forest.
SUMMARY.
The insect food, though small in amount, may be set down to the
jay’s credit. By the destruction of birds’ eggs and young, it does
serious mischief. Two items of its vegetable food, grain and fruit,
are against the jay. In the case of grain, however, it is doubtful if
much damage is done, since it is taken mostly after the harvest. If
the grain taken in early spring is stolen from newly sown fields, it
represents a real loss; but the jay is not known to pull up grain
after it has sprouted, so that all it gets at this time must have been
left uncovered, and is therefore of minor importance. After harvest
it is common to see small companies of jays in fields, where they
probably glean scattered kernels as well as some insects. In the
matter of fruit. stealing there are no extenuating circumstances.
Wherever orchards are near its haunts, the jay is a persistent and
insatiable fruit thief. If he took only what is necessary to satisfy
the appetites of himself and family, he might be endured for the sake
of his better traits. But long after his hunger is appeased, he con-
tinues to carry off fruit to store away, and thus his pilferings are
limited only by his numbers and by the size of the fruit crop. More-
over, much of the fruit which he pecks is left on the tree to rot, and
more falls to the ground unfit for use, except by pigs. It is fortu-
nate that only orchards situated near the jay’s usual haunts suffer
severely. Those farther away are visited occasionally, but are not
seriously damaged. Unlike many other birds which prey upon the
earlier fruits, the jay continues his depredations as long as fruit is
to be had. In an orchard closely watched by the writer 1t was
found that when the earlier cherries were ripening, blackbirds,
thrushes, orioles, grosbeaks, cedar birds, and linnets, as well as jays,
56 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
were present in numbers, but two weeks later, when the earlier
varieties were gone and the later ones were ripe, hardly any smaller
birds were present, while the jays were as busy as ever; and still
later, at the end of the season, when the prune crop came on, jays
were still taking a heavy toll.
It will thus be seen that the jay has many more bad qualities
than good. In fact, from the economic point of view he has few
redeeming virtues. Something may be said in his favor from the
esthetic side, as he is a handsome bird, and people interested in
country life would no doubt miss his familiar presence. But as the
case stands there are far too many California jays. If they could
be reduced to a fourth or a half of their present numbers, the remain-
der would probably do no serious harm. This is exactly what is
likely to take place gradually as the State becomes more thickly
settled and forest and chaparral lands decrease.
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY.
(Icteridex.)
The family which includes the orioles, blackbirds, and meadow-
larks embraces species widely different in form, plumage, nesting
habits, and food. The orioles nest in trees and obtain the greater
part of their food thereon. The blackbirds nest upon low trees,
bushes, or reeds, and take their food from trees to some extent, but
mostly from the ground. The meadowlarks, the most. terrestrial
of all, nest upon the ground and obtain nearly all of their food there.
Orioles eat the greatest percentage of insects, the meadowlarks eat
a little less, while the blackbirds eat the least. Blackbirds rank
next to sparrows as eaters of weed seeds, especially in winter.
Besides the Brewer blackbird there are in California 5 species
and subspecies of redwinged blackbirds, which are so much alike
that most of them can be distinguished only by ornithologists.
All have practically the same nesting habits, and their food is not
essentially different.
BICOLORED REDWING.
(Agelaius gubernator californicus.)
The bicolored redwing is distributed locally over a large part of
California, but owing to its peculiar habit of building its nest
directly over water, the areas it occupies are restricted. Flooded
marshes and ponds overgrown with bulrushes or tules are much
to its taste, affording abundant nesting sites. Such places are
common in California and many are of large extent—as those on
Suisun Bay and in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Among
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. Lv
these the bicolored redwing and his redwinged relatives find con-
genial quarters.
For the laboratory investigation of the food of this species, 198
stomachs were available. They were collected in every month
of the year, and probably give a fair idea of the bird’s food. It
was found to consist of 14 percent of animal matter to 86 of vege-
table. The animal food is practically all insects, and the vegetable
either grain or weed seed.
Animal food.—Most of the animal food was taken in May, June,
and July. May stomachs showed the maximum of nearly 91 per-
cent. There is a sudden rise in the amount from April to May and
a sudden fall from July to August. The insects composing this
part of the food were distributed among several of the most com-
mon orders, but none of them appear to be specially sought after.
Beetles aggregate about 5 percent. A few were predaceous ground
beetles, but the most were either leaf beetles (Chrysomelidc) or
weevils. Hymenoptera, in the shape of wasps and ants, were taken
very sparingly in the four months from May to August inclusive, and
amount to about one-fourth of 1 percent for the year. Bugs were
eaten during the six warmer months, and for the year aggregate
just 1 percent. Grasshoppers constitute over 15 percent of the
food in July. They are a fraction of 1 percent for the other months
and average 1.5 percent for the year.
Caterpillars aggregate 5.5 percent, the highest of any item of
animal food. In May they amount to over 45 percent of the food
of that month, which is more than for all the other months together.
Probably they are fed largely to the nestlings, as a few taken in
May had eaten a large percentage of these insects. It is worthy of
special notice that the caterpillar known in the cotton-raising States
as the cotton bollworm, and elsewhere as the corn-ear worm, Helio‘his
obsoleta, was found in 7 stomachs. This is certainly to the credit of
the bird, and it may be that its visits to cornfields are for this insect
primarily, and that corn is taken only incidentally. A few miscel-
laneous insects amount to less than 1 percent and complete the
animal portion of the diet.
The following are the insects identified in stomachs of the bicolored
redwing:
COLEOPTERA.
Elaphrus ruscarius. Systena ochracea.
Gastroidea cyanea cesia. Notozus alamede.
Chetocnema minuta. Apocrypha dyschirioides.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Heliothis obsoleta.
58 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Vegetable food.—Two prominent constituents make up the vege-
table food of the redwing—grain and weed seed. Grain amounts
to 70 and weed seed to 15 percent. The grain consists of corn,
wheat, oats, and barley. Oats are the favorite. They amount to
over 47 percent of the yearly food, and were eaten in every month
except February, when they were replaced by barley. The month
of maximum consumption was December, when nearly 72 percent
was eaten, but several other months were nearly as high. Wheat
stands next to oats in the quantity eaten, nearly 13 percent. It is
taken quite regularly in every month except March and May. Bar-
ley was found only in stomachs taken in February, October, and
November, and nearly all of it was taken in February. The aver-
age for the year is 5.5 percent. Corn is eaten still less than barley,
and nearly all was consumed in September, when it reached nearly
46 percent of the month’s food. A little was eaten in May, August,
and October, but the aggregate for the year is only slightly more than
4 percent.
Weed seed amounts to 15 percent of the food of the bicolored red-
wing. It is eaten in every month except May, when it gives way
to animal food. The following species were identified:
Sunflower (Helianthus sp.). Chickweed (Stellaria media).
Tarweed ( Madia sativa). Catchfly (Silene sp.).
Bur clover ( Medicago denticulatum). Smartweed (Polygonum).
Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium). Sorrel (Rumezx sp.).
Red maids (Calandrinia menziest). Canary seed (Phalaris caroliniana).
Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus). Sedge (Carex sp.).
These seeds were eaten very regularly throughout the year. The
greatest consumption is in March, 35 percent, but as the record for
several other months does not fall much below, probably this has
no special significance. All of the above weeds are more or less of a
nuisance, though at times some of them may be used as forage plants.
Fruit is not eaten by the bicolored redwing.
Food of young.—Among the stomachs of the bicolored redwing
were 11 of nestlings varying in age from 4 days to 2 weeks.
The food was made up of 99 percent of animal matter and 1 percent
of vegetable, though most of the latter was mere rubbish, no doubt
accidental. Caterpillars were the largest item, and amounted to an
average of 45 percent. Beetles, many of them in the larval state,
stood next, with 32 percent. Hemiptera, especially stinkbugs and
leafhoppers, amounted to 19 percent. A few miscellaneous insects and
spiders made up the other 3 percent. It will be noted that the food
of the young is practically all animal and that a preponderance of
caterpillars and beetle larvee makes it softer than that of the adults.
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. 59
SUMMARY.
In summing up the facts relating to the food of the bicolored
redwing, the most prominent point is the great percentage of grain.
Evidently if this bird were abundant in a grain-raising country it
would be a menace to the crop. But no complaints of the bird’s
depredations on grain have been made, and it is significant that the
grain consumed is not taken at or just before the harvest, but is a
constant element of every month’s food. As the favorite grain is
oats, which grows wild in great abundance, it must be admitted
that, with all its possibilities for mischief, the bird at present is
doing very little damage. So far as its insect food goes, it does
no appreciable harm and much good. Its consumption of weed seed
is a positive benefit. Like the other redwings, it has interesting
habits and a pleasant song, and for the present, at least, should be
protected.
OTHER REDWINGS.
In addition to the stomachs of the bicolored redwing, a few of
2 other species of redwings have been examined. They comprise
16 stomachs of the tricolored redwing (Agelaius tricolor), and 12 of
the western redwing (some form of A. pheniceus). From the exami-
nation of sosmall a number, final data on the food can not be obtained,
but so far as the testimony goes, it indicates that both species consume
~more insects and less grain than the bicolored. The stomachs of
the tricolored contain 79 percent of animal matter to 21 of vegetable.
The animal matter consists mostly of beetles and caterpillars, with
a decided preponderance of caterpillars. The vegetable food is
nearly all weed seed. One stomach alone contained barley.
In the case of the western redwings, the animal food amounted
to 63 percent to 37 of vegetable. The former was pretty evenly
distributed among beetles, grasshoppers, and Lepidoptera (moths and
caterpillars), and contained in addition a few aquatic insects. The
vegetable food was largely weed seed. A little barley was foundin
one stomach, and one was filled with oats.
It is evident from the foregoing that the beneficial greatly out-
weigh the injurious elements in the food of these redwings.
BREWER BLACKBIRD.
(Euphagus cyanocephalus.)
The Brewer blackbird (Pl. IV) occurs over most of the cultivated
districts of California. By choice it is a resident of fields, meadows,
orchards, and about ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally.
It takes the place on the Pacific coast occupied by the crow blackbird
(Quiscalus quiscula and zneus) in the Mississippi Valley and farther
60 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
east, and is so similar in appearance and habits that the eastern
observer in California forgets that it is not the same species. It
nests in bushes, weeds, and sometimes in trees, and is so gregarious
that several nests are often built in the same vicinity. Large colonies
frequently establish themselves near farm buildings, and feed freely
in the stock yards and cultivated fields. When fruit is ripe these
blackbirds do not hesitate to take a share, and they visit the orchard
daily for the early cherries.
They claim a share of grain also, but do not appear to eat it at
harvest time so much as afterwards. Mr. Walter K. Fisher, writing
from Stockton, Calif.,on November 12,1897, reports them as feeding
on newly sown wheat that had not been harrowed in, eating nearly
all thus left exposed. He describes the birds as in such immense
flocks in the grain fields that at a distance they looked like smoke
rising from the ground, and says that stomachs of birds taken were
full of wheat. On the other hand, Prof. A. J. Cook, of Cldremont,
Calif., says that he considered it one of the most valuable species
in the State; and Mr. J. F. Illingsworth, of Ontario, Calif., in a paper
read before the Pomona Farmers’ Club,* speaks of it as a beneficial
bird, which should be protected. Mr. O. E. Bremner, State horti-
cultural inspector, in a letter to the Biological Survey, says:
The cankerworm episode is quite a common one with us here. In one district,
Dry Creek Valley, Sonoma County, there has been a threatened invasion of the
prune trees by spring cankerworms several times, but each time the blackbirds came
to the rescue and completely cleaned them out. I have often seen bands of black-
birds working in an infested orchard. They work from tree to tree, clearing them
out as they go. Ifa worm tries to escape by webbing down, they will dive down and
catch him in mid-air.
During the cherry season the writer observed these birds in the
orchards, and collected a number of them. They were seen to eat
freely of cherries, and the stomachs of those taken showed that a
goodly proportion of the food consisted of cherry pulp. While these
observations were being made, a neighboring fruit raiser began to
plow his orchard. Almost immediately every blackbird in the vicin-
ity was upon the newly opened ground, and many followed within
a few feet of the plowman’s heels in their eagerness to get every
grub or other insect turned out by the plow. On another occasion
an orchard was being watched while the far side was being plowed.
A continual flight of blackbirds was passing in both directions over
the observer's head, and practically all of them alighted on the newly
plowed ground, fed there for a while, and then returned, probably
to their nests. When plowing was finished and harrowing began,
the blackbirds immediately changed their foraging ground, and fol-
lowed the harrow as closely as they had accompanied the plow.
4 Ontario Observer, June 3, 1899.
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. 61
In the laboratory investigation of this bird’s food 312 stomachs
were available. They were collected in every month in the year,
and represent fairly the fruit and grain growing sections of the State
from Santa Rosa southward. Many were taken in orchards and
gardens when in the act of pilfering fruit or other products of hus-
bandry. Besides adults, 29 nestlings of various ages are represented.
The first analysis of the stomach contents gives 32 percent of animal
matter to 68 of vegetable. The animal food consists of insects, spi-
ders, sow bugs, snails, and eggshells.
Animal food.—The animal food attains its maximum in April,
when it reaches 82 percent. From that time it slowly decreases
until December, when it is only 5 percent, and then riscs toward its
maximum. The increase is very sudden from March to April. Bee-
tles constitute over 11 percent of the food, and of these 2.5 percent
are predatory ground beetles (Carabide). April is the month of |
greatest consumption of beetles, 29 percent, but no carabids are
eaten in this month. In June 22.5 percent of beetles are eaten, of
which 12 percent are carabids. The amounts eaten in other months
are insignificant. The great bulk of the beetles eaten are the dark-
‘ling beetles (Tenebrionide), which have much the same habit of
‘living on the ground as the carabids, and are probably more abun-
- dant in California. One stomach was entirely filled with them. A
few click beetles (Elateridz) and some weevils were also eaten.
Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, and ants) were eaten to the extent of
1.7 percent of the food. Evidently blackbirds are too slow to catch
often such agile creatures as wasps and bees. Hymenoptera were
eaten in every month from March to November, inclusive. In June
they amount to something over 7 percent, which is the maximum.
Bugs (Hemiptera) of various kinds are eaten from April to Novem-
ber to a small extent. They aggregate somewhat more than 1 per-
cent for the year. In the month of greatest consumption, June,
they reach only 5.5 percent. They belong mostly to the families of
stinkbugs (Pentatomide) and shield bugs (Scutelleride). A black
olive scale was found in one stomach. Flies (Diptera) were eaten
to a slight extent from April to July inclusive, with a trace in Octo-
ber. The total for the year is only a little more than 1.5 percent.
Like bees and wasps, flies are probably too quick to be easily caught.
Caterpillars and pupe (Lepidoptera) reach the highest percentage
of any item of animal food. They amount to nearly 12 percent, and
are eaten in every month. April is the month when most are taken,
over 38 percent, and the record for May stands nearly as high. They
belong largely to the owlet moths (Noctuide), which comprise many
of those pests generally known as cutworms. The cotton bollworm,
or corn-ear worm (Heliothis obsoleta), was identified in 10 stomachs,
and was probably contained in many more, but in a condition that
62 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
baffled recognition. The most interesting Lepidoptera were the
pupee of the codling moth, found in 11 stomachs, 4 of which belonged
to adults, while the ethwee 7 were from nestlings, whose food will be
discussed farther on. An orchardist told the writer that at one time
his trees became infested with cankerworms, which swarmed all over
the orchard and were rapidly destroying the leaves, when the black-
birds came in great numbers from all quarters and fed upon the
worms until they were practically exterminated.
Grasshoppers and crickets were taken from April to November,
inclusive, and amount for the whole year to 3.5 percent of the diet.
In June they constitute over 15 percent of the food of that month,
but only a moderate percentage was eaten in the other months. It
is rather remarkable that birds which feed so much on the ground
should eat so few of these insects, but this species appears to be
mainly a vegetable eater, and to get the larger part of its animal
food in April, just at its reproductive season, before grasshoppers
are abundant.
Following is a list of insects identified in the stomachs of the
Brewer blackbird:
COLEOPTERA.
Trizna scitula. Diabrotica soror.
Trixna longula. Diachus auratus.
Bradycellus rupestris. Gastroidea sp.
Scymnus lacustris. Blapstinus pulverulentus. 7
Dermestes mannerheimi. Blapstinus rufipes.
Saprinus obscurus. Apocrypha dyschirioides.
Anchastus cinereipennis, Anthicus punctulatus.
Aphodius rugifrons. Sitones sp.
Aphodius granarius.
HEMIPTERA.
Saissetia olex.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Heliothis obsoleta. Carpocapsa pomonella,
Veg getable jfood—The vegetable food reaches its maximum of 95
percent in December, when animal food is least plentiful. It may be
divided into fruit, grain, and weed seed. Fruit was caten in May,
June, and July, not a trace appearing in any other month. It was
fennel in 63 stomachs, of which 37 contained cherries (or what was
thought to be such); 2, strawberries; 3, blackberries or raspberries;
and 21, fruit pulp or skins not further identified. The percentages
for each month were 14 for May, 22 for June, and 15 for July, an
average of 17 percent for each of the three months, or of a little more
than 4 percent for the whole year. This certainly is not a bad
showing, and if the bird does no greater harm than is involved in its
fruit eating, it is well worth protecting.
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. 63
Grain constitutes 54 percent of the yearly food of the Brewer
blackbird. It is eaten in every month, and forms a respectable
percentage in each. The greatest amount is taken in December,
93 percent, and the least in April, 4 percent. Oats are the favorite
grain. They amount to nearly 46 percent, and were found in 157
stomachs. Wheat amounts to nearly 3 percent, and was contained
in 11 stomachs. Corn ranks next as to quantity eaten, less than 2
percent, but it was found in 17 stomachs. Barley occurred in only
5 stomachs, but amounted to a little more than 2 percent. Only
1 stomach held rye, but it amounted to more than 1 percent, for
the stomach was nearly filled with it. Oats were the sole contents
of 14 stomachs and wheat of 2. No stomach was completely filled
with any other grain. Oats are evidently the favorite grain,
whether we judge by the percentage eaten or by the number of
stomachs containing them. Many of these were wild oats and of
little economic value.
Weed seed amounts to nearly 9 percent of the food, and, while not
consumed in large quantities, is eaten to some extent in every month.
The greatest amount is taken in March, 26 percent. October comes
next, with nearly 16 percent. The least is eaten in December and
January, when grain is at its highest point. But little weed seed is
eaten in May and June, when cherries demand attention. Weed
seed was found in 134 stomachs, but in rather small quantities in
each. No stomach was completely filled with it. It seems to be
taken, moreover, rather irregularly, as though it were merely a
makeshift. A few other odd items, mostly rubbish, amount to less
than 1 percent, and complete the quota of vegetable food.
Seeds of the following uncultivated plants were identified:
Lesser tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata). Spurry (Spergula arvensis).
Tarweed ( Madia sativa). Chickweed (Stellaria media).
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis). Catchfly (Silene sp.).
Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium). Knotweed (Polygonum sp.).
Black mustard (Brassica nigra). Brome grass (Bromus sp.).
Miners’ lettuce (Montia perfoliata). Wild oats (Avena fatua).
Red maids (Calandrinia menziest). Monterey pine (Pinus radiata).
Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflerus).
Food of young —Among the stomachs examined were those of 29
nestlings, varying in age from twenty-four hours to some that were
nearly fledged. Taken altogether, the stomachs contained 89
percent of animal matter to 11 of vegetable. Over 74 percent of
all was composed of caterpillars, grasshoppers, and spiders. Beetles
in general amount to 6 percent of the food, or a little more than half
the quantity eaten by the adults. Very singularly, however, 4.5
percent of these are carabids, or predatory ground beetles, nearly
twice as many as are taken by the parent birds, although soft food
is usually preferred for feeding nestlings. Caterpillars, with a few
64 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
adult moths and some pupex, aggregate 33 percent, which is three
times as many as were eaten by the old birds. They were found in
22 of the 29 stomachs. The most interesting part of this item is 15
codling moth pup that were contained in 7 stomachs. Four adult
stomachs also contained one each of these pupe, but they seem to
be mostly reserved as tidbits for the young. Grasshoppers and
crickets were found in 21 stomachs, and aggregate 30 percent of the
food, more than eight times as much as was eaten by the adults, so
these insects also are evidently reserved for the nestlings. Spiders
amount to 11 percent of the food of the young, although less than 1
percent of the parents’ food. Various other insects and a few snails
make up the rest of the animal food.
The vegetable food consists of fruit, grain, and rubbish. Fruit,
probably cherries, was found in 4 stomachs of one brood. The
average for each stomach was 43 percent. This was the oldest
brood taken, and the birds were nearly ready to fly, which probably
accounts for the large proportion of vegetable food. Oats, found in
the stomach of one bird about a week old, amounted to about 45
percent of the contents, and seemed unusual food for so young a
bird. The other two of the same brood had grass and other rubbish
in their stomachs. Rubbish is the best term to describe the vegeta-
ble matter in most of these stomachs. The fruit and grain were all
that should be called food.
One can not fail to notice the very pronounced difference in diet
between these nestlings and the adults. Not only is the animal
food of the young greatly in excess, but it is practically made up of
spiders, caterpillars, and grasshoppers. All of these are compara-
tively soft-bodied creatures, and probably on that account are
selected for the young.
SUMMARY.
In so far as its animal food is concerned, but little fault can be
found with the Brewer blackbird. The insects eaten are fairly well
distributed among the various orders, and include only a compara-
tively small number that are useful. As to fruit, no more is eaten
than may be considered a fair return for the destruction of insects.
The weed seed eaten must be set down to the bird’s credit. All
question, then, in regard to its economic position must rest upon the
grain it eats. Most of the grain is taken in the months from August
to February, inclusive. The average amount consumed in those
seven months is over 75 percent of the food, while the average for
the other five months is less than 24 percent, yet this last period
covers the time from sowing to the end of harvest. As matters
stand at present, probably the bird is doing no harm by eating grain,
except perhaps under exceptional circumstances. It has a decided
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. 65
proclivity for oats, and if abundant would undoubtedly plove a
menace to'the crop.
WESTERN MEADOWLARK.
(Sturneila neglecta.)
Throughout California wherever grassy uplands, fields, and
meadows occur, there will be seen the western meadowlark. Low,
rich meadows, verging to marsh, with water near by, form ideal condi-
tions for this bird. Nor does it disdain fertile hillsides when not too
high, and when covered by a thick coat of herbage. Only pro-
fessional ornithologists take note of the plumage differences between
the eastern and western species of the meadowlark, but the difference
in song is evident to the dullest ear. Owing to the snow, meadowlarks
in the northern and eastern parts of the United States must migrate
in winter far enough south to find open ground, but in California
valleys no such necessity exists; so the bird remains on the same
range the year round, and carries on its good work of destroying
insects and weeds. ;
A few complaints have been made that meadowlarks in California.
eat the seeds of forage plants, notably clover, to an injurious extent.
As most of the forage plants, including the introduced grasses of the
Pacific coast lowlands, are annuals, the destruction of their seed
would lessen the next season’s feed and be a damage. Probably,
however, such harm is done only under exceptional circumstances,
for the stomachs show only a very small percentage of seed of forage
plants and no clover seed. Another report is that the meadowlark
does considerable damage to peas. The earliest fields are most
visited by the birds, and small patches are sometimes almost com-
pletely destroyed. The later crops are not so badly damaged, and
in extensive areas the loss is hardly noticeable. All the reports of
damage to peas thus far received are from southern California, and
very likely the explanation lies in some peculiar local conditions. The
birds evidently lose their taste for this kind of food before the season
is over, and probably find something more palatable which is wanting
at first.
In some parts of the San Joaquin Valley the meadowlark has been
accused, and probably with good reason, of pulling up sprouting grain
inearly spring. It is stated that the bird bores down beside the new
plant and draws out the kernel. In many cases the amount of grain
thus destroyed is said to be large. In one instance it was stated that
the crop over a limited area was reduced 50 percent. The evidence,
however, is conflicting, as some grain growers in the same localities
are not aware of any loss. It thus seems probable that the damage
to grain by the meadowlark is limited in extent and very local.
38301—Bull. 34—10-—5
66 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
For the determination of the food of the meadowlark 91 stomachs
were available, distributed throughout the year. The food consists
of 70 percent of animal matter to 30 of vegetable. Broadly speaking,
the animal matter is made up of insects and the vegetable of seeds.
Animal food.—Beetles are the largest item of the animal part of
the diet. They are evidently a favorite food, for they are eaten
in every month, with a good percentage in nearly all of them. The
amount for the year is almost 27 percent. Practically half of this
consists of the predatory ground beetles (Carabide). It is not sur-
prising that the meadowlark should eat these beetles, for nearly all
of them live on the ground, and walk and run much more than they
fly; hence they are easily taken. As nearly all the species subsist
largely upon other insects, their destruction must be considered as a
flaw in this bird’s record. All the other beetles eaten are harmful
or neutral, and include a number of weevils. One stomach contained
36 yucca weevils (Rhigopsis effracta). The greatest number of beetles
appears to have been eaten in March, when they amount to 72 percent,
but as only two stomachs were available for that month the record
is unreliable.
Wasps and ants (Hymenoptera) aggregate nearly 6 percent.
They were eaten in every month but two, and ample material would
undoubtedly show them in every month. Ants, being the more
terrestrial, seem to be more natural food for the meadowlark than
wasps or bees, but the bird gets a good share of both. Bugs (Hemip-
tera) were eaten to the extent of a little more than 4 percent.
Nearly all of them were stinkbugs (Pentatomide). They were not
eaten very regularly, and several months were not represented. May
was the month of greatest consumption, 27 percent, but this may have
been accidental.
Lepidoptera, largely caterpillars, aggregate about 15 percent.
They were eaten in every month except August, when they were re-
placed by grasshoppers. February is apparently the month of maxi-
mum consumption, but a greater number of stomachs might prove
differently. It is thought that many of these are of the kinds known
as cutworms, though none were positively identified. All were un-
doubtedly terrestrial species, for the meadowlark is not known to seek
food anywhere but on the Sauna:
Grasshoppers, when abundant, are usually eaten very freely by
all ground feeding birds and by many arboreal species. The west-
ern meadowlark eats them to the extent of something more than
12 percent of its yearly food. This is a very small percentage for a
bird of such terrestrial habits. The eastern form cats them to the |
extent of 29 percent, and in August the amount taken reaches 69
percent of the food of that month. With the western species the ; ?
consumption reaches 42 percent in August, which is the maximum . .
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. 67
for the year. In the East the grasshopper season is limited to five
months at most, but in California these insects can always be found.
This makes it all the more surprising that California meadowlarks
do not eat them more freely, but it is noteworthy that nearly every
species of terrestrial bird in the East eats a larger percentage of these
insects than does the related species on the Pacific coast. The
actual percentage of grasshoppers proper eaten by the western
meadowlark is even less than the above figures indicate, for the record
includes quite a number of crickets, both the black and the brown
or wood crickets (Stenopelmatus). One stomach contained 12 wood
crickets. Crane flies (Tipulide), spiders, sowbugs (Oniscus), and a
few snails make up the rest of the animal food, nearly 6 percent.
More than half of this item consists of the crane flies (daddy longlegs)
found in one stomach taken in April, in which they amounted to 45
percent of the stomach’s contents.
The following insects were identified in the stomachs of the western
meadowlark:
COLEOPTERA.
\
Calosoma externum. Eurymetopon cylindricum.
Trina longula. Blapstinus dilatatus.
Silpha ramosa. Rhigopsis effracta.
Dolopius lateralis. Sitones hispidulus.
Taphrocerus gracilis.
ORTHOPTERA.
Stenopelmatus sp.
Vegetable food —The vegetable food of the western meadowlark
may be arranged under three heads: Fruit, grain, and weed seed.
In one stomach taken in November was found something which was
doubtfully identified as fruit pulp, but no other stomach contained
a trace of fruit, and this bird has rarely been accused of eating fruit.
From August to March inclusive, grain is one of the most impor-
tant articles of food. The average monthly consumption for the
year is 27.5 percent, but for the eight months just indicated the
average is 41 percent. In the other four months, that is, from April
to July inclusive, which include the ripening and harvesting of the
crop, no grain except a little corn was eaten. Grain of some kind
was found in 60 of the 91 stomachs, and 4 were entirely filled with it.
Corn is eaten only occasionally, and amounts to but 1 percent of the
food. It was all taken in May and June. Wheat was eaten from
October to January, inclusive. It amounts to over 11 percent for
those months, but to less than 4 percent for the whole year. As is
usual with grain eating birds, oats are the favorite kind. They were
eaten from August to March’ inclusive, and average nearly 33 percent
for those eight months, and for the year a little less than 22 percent.
The greatest quantity, nearly 57 percent, was eaten in January, but
68 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
nearly as much was taken in September. March, the month of seed-
ing, shows the least, 10 percent. Barley was found in 6 stomachs
taken in November, and amounts to less than 1 percent for the year.
Weed seed forms only 2 percent of the yearly food of the western
meadowlark. With the eastern bird it aggregates a little more than
11 percent. It seems strange that a bird which obtains its food from
the ground, and whose vegetable diet consists so largely of seeds,
should neglect a food that furnishes sustenance to so many other
species of birds. Weed seed was eaten so irregularly as to indicate
that it was taken only as a makeshift. December was the month
of greatest consumption, when it amounted to 15 percent.
SUMMARY.
Three items of damage may be brought up against the meadow-
lark. The first is the destruction of predaceous ground beetles
(Carabide), which amount to one-eighth of its food. This, however,
constitutes but a small offense when we consider the number of cater-
pillars and grasshoppers which the bird also destroys. The damage:
to peas and grain when sprouting are undoubtedly real and in some cases
serious, but the conflicting testimony in regard to these points indi-
cates that this damage is due to local conditions, and it is probable
that a careful study of the attendant circumstances will lead to a
remedy.
In some communities, especially in the South and West, where
meadowlarks are most abundant, there is a tendency to include them
among game birds. The tiny body of the meadowlark, however, has
slight food value as compared with the value of the living bird to the
agriculturist. While the western meadowlark can, not be classed in
the front rank of the proved friends of the farmer, its services are
‘sufficiently real and important to earn protection wherever it is found.
BULLOCK ORIOLE.
(Icterus bullockt.)
Over most of the plains and valleys of California, where trees are
available for nesting and foraging, the Bullock oriole (Pl. V.) is a com-
mon summer visitant. In the West it takes the place occupied in the
East by the Baltimore oriole. In food, nesting habits, and song the
birds are similar. Both are migratory and remain on their summer
range only about five or six months. They are rather domestic in
habits, and take kindly to orchards, gardens, and the vicinity of
farm buildings, and often live in villages and in the parks of large
towns. Their diet is largely made up of insects that infest orchards
and gardens. Their favorite foraging places are trees, where they
may be seen examining every leaf in search of their customary food,
BLACKBIRD, ORIOLE, AND MEADOWLARK FAMILY. 69
caterpillars and other leaf-haunting insects. When fruit trees are in
bloom they are constantly busy among the blossoms, and probably
save many of them from destruction.
For the investigation of the food of the Bullock oriole 162 stomachs
were available. They were taken in the five months from April to
August inclusive, and probably give a very fair idea of the food for
those months. Analysis of the contents shows about 79 percent of
animal matter to 21 of vegetable. i
Animal food.—The animal food consisted mainly of insects, with a
few spiders, a lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted
to 35 percent, and all except a few ladybugs (Coccinellide) were
harmful species. The coccinellids were found in 9 stomachs, but the
percentage was insignificant. Many of the beetles were weevils, and
quite a number belonged to the genus Balaninus, which lives upon
acorns and other nuts. Ants were found in 19 stomachs, and 1
contained nothing else. Hymenoptera other than ants were found
in 56 stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the ants,
they amount to nearly 15 percent of the food of the season. The
month of maximum consumption was April, when they reached over
29 percent of the monthly food.
One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole’s dietary is
the black olive scale (Saissetia olex). This was found in 45 stomachs,
and amounted to 5 percent of the food. In one stomach these scales
formed 87 percent of the contents; in another, 82; and in each of
two others, 81 percent. In one of these 30 individual scales could
be counted. Scales were evidently a standard article of diet. They
were eaten regularly in every month of the oriole’s stay except April.
Hemiptera other than scales are eaten quite regularly. They amount
to a little more than 5 percent of the food. The month of greatest
consumption was July, when they formed over 13 percent. They
were mostly stinkbugs, leafhoppers, and tree hoppers. Plant lice
(Aphidide) were found in one stomach.
Lepidoptera, in the shape of moths, pup2, and caterpillars, are the
largest item of the oriole’s animal food. April, the month of the
bird’s arrival from the South, is the month of greatest consumption,
‘nearly 63 percent. The month when the fewest are taken is July,
not quite 8 percent. This also is the month when the Baltimore
oriole eats the fewest caterpillars. For the Bullock oriole the average
consumption during its summer stay is a little more than 41 percent
against 34 percent by the Baltimore. Perhaps the most interesting
point in connection with the Lepidoptera is the eating of the pupe
and larve of the codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). ‘These were
found in 23 stomachs, which shows that they are not an unusual
article af diet. No less than 14 of the pupa cases were found in one
stomach, and as they are very fragile, many others may have been
70 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
present, but broken up beyond recognition. It is curious that the
oriole should find these insects. During the greater part of their
larval life they are concealed within the apple. When ready to
pupate they crawl out and at once seek some place of concealment,
such as a crevice in bark or among clods or rubbish, where they can
undergo their changes. To find them, therefore, birds must hunt
for them. This would be very natural work for woodpeckers, tit-
mice, creepers, and nuthatches, but it seems a surprising habit for
an oriole.
Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole’s way.
They were eaten, however, to the extent of a little more than 3 per-
cent. In June they rise to somewhat more than 11 percent, which
is the maximum. August is the month in which most birds eat the
greatest quantities of grasshoppers, but none of the orioles collected
in that month had eaten any. In spite of the fact, however, that
grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, both taken in June,
contained nothing else, and another had 97 percent of them.
Various insects and spiders, with a few other elements, make up
the rest of the animal food, a little more than 5 percent. Spiders do
not form any important percentage of the oriole’s food, but are prob-
ably eaten whenever found. They were identified in 44 stomachs,
but no great number appeared in any. The scales of a lizard were
found in one stomach and the shell of a snail in another. Eggshells
occurred in 8 stomachs, and one egg was apparently eaten when fresh.
Eggshells are often seen in birds’ stomachs and in most cases are
supposed to be empty shells, which have been thrown from the nest.
In the examination of the stomachs of over 200 species of birds,
eggshells have been found in some of the stomachs of a great majority
of the species. While most of these may have been empty shells,
some of the cases are very questionable, and it is probable that occa-
sionally individuals of most species of birds yield to the temptation
to eat a fresh egg when a favorable opportunity occurs.
Vegetable food.—Practically all of the vegetable food consists of
fruit, which amounts to a little more than 9 percent. Other vege-
table matter aggregating less than 2 percent is largely rubbish, prob-
ably taken accidentally. Fruit was eaten in the four months from
May to August inclusive. The maximum quantity was taken in
July, when it amounted to nearly 40 percent. It was found in 67
stomachs, of which 16 contained cherries; 11, figs; 5, blackberries or
raspberries; 1, elderberries; and 34, fruit pulp not further identified.
One stomach was entirely filled with the pulp and seeds of figs.
While this is a high percentage of fruit, most of which is of cultivated
varieties, it is probably well paid for by the destruction of harmful
insects. It is doubtful if any fruit grower would be willing to sacri-
SPARROW FAMILY, T1
fice the oriole, with its brilliant plumage and cheerful song, even if
it took more fruit than it now does.
SUMMARY.
From an esthetic point of view the Bullock oriole has few rivals,
and from an economic standpoint it has only one fault—that it does
eat some fruit. It is not, however, so abundant that its ravages are
likely ever to become serious, and its present numbers should be
strictly protected.
SPARROW FAMILY.
(Fringillide.)
The sparrow family embraces a large number of birds of wide
distribution, great diversity of form, and considerable variation in
food habits. They are in general characterized by short, stout,
conical bills, with which they hull seeds or crush beetles and the
toughest skinned fruit. They are the great seed eaters of the feath-
ered race. The quantity of seeds of noxious weeds consumed by
the host of sparrows, especially in winter, is enormous. While the
great bulk of the food of this family consists of vegetable matter,
most of the species eat some animal food during the period of repro-
duction, and feed their young upon it during the first two weeks of
their lives. The sparrows proper, commonly known as finches,
linnets, or buntings, are, with a few exceptions, of subdued colors
and quiet habits and subsist mostly upon vegetable food. On the
other hand, such aberrant forms as grosbeaks and towhees eat a
certain amount of animal food throughout the year.
In California about 60 species and subspecies of sparrows proper
have been recorded, besides about a dozen grosbeaks and towhees.
Not all of these, however, have such habits as render them of economic
importance, and as many of the subspecies do not differ essentially
in their food they are treated together.
WILLOW GOLDFINCH.
(Astragalinus tristis salicamans.)
The willow goldfinch, while found over most of the State west of
the Sierra, is very locally distributed. Its plumage is beautiful, and
its song, while not remarkable for power or volume, is sweet and
cheery. The western goldfinches, like the eastern, feed principally
upon seeds, and seem to have a special taste for those of thistles.
When one finds a ripe thistle head, he at once begins to pick out the
seeds and scatter the down, at the same time making a great jubi-
lation, as though he enjoyed the fun of seeing the down fly. This
habit has earned for them the name of thistle bird. They are
72 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
eminently seed lovers, and rarely eat anything else, except a few
insects during the season of reproduction. The only mischief so
far imputed to them is the eating of the seeds of useful plants, such
as lettuce and other vegetables on seed farms. Investigation has
failed, however, to find a case where the damage was considerable.
The writer visited some of the largest seed farms in California and
ascertained that while birds, especially goldfinches, ate some of the
ripening seeds, the damage had never been serious enough to warrant
any protective measures. The writer observed goldfinches feeding
on lettuce seed, but the birds were few, and all they could eat would
have no appreciable effect on the quantity of seed harvested.
One marked peculiarity of the goldfinches is their bibulous habits.
They seem always in need of water, perhaps owing to the habit of
eating dry seeds. The writer has seen more goldfinches drinking in
one day than he has seen of all other species in his whole life.
Only 84 stomachs of the willow goldfinch were available for exami-
nation, but such is the uniformity of the food that a larger number
would probably not give a very different result. No stomachs
were taken in December, but all the other months were represented.
The food for those months amounts to 5 percent of animal matter
to 95 of vegetable. All the animal food was found in 10 stomachs,
9 being taken in March, April, and May, and 1, containing 2 larve,
in September. Practically all the vegetable matter is seeds.
Animal food.—The animal food was composed entirely of 3 orders
of insects: Bugs (Hemiptera), flies (Diptera), and caterpillars
(Lepidoptera). Bugs were contained in 5 stomachs and were all
plant lice (Aphidide). They aggregated a little less than 2 percent.
Flies were found in 1 stomach taken in April. They were in the shape
of larvee or maggots and amounted to less than one-half of 1 per-
cent. Caterpillars were contained in 6 stomachs and aggregated
less than 3 percent. Beetles, wasps, ants, and grasshoppers, which
so often constitute the bulk of the animal food of birds, are entirely
wanting in the stomachs of the willow goldfinch, as also are spiders.
Vegetable food.—Vegetable matter appeared in every one of the
84 stomachs, and 73 of them held no other food. Hulls of oats were
found in 1 stomach taken in May. It amounted to 65 percent of
the contents of that stomach, and was the only thing of economic
value found in any one of the 84 stomachs. It amounted to less than
one-half of 1 percent of the year’s food. Seeds of various weeds come
to over 91 percent of the diet, and are found in every stomach in every
month. For seven months weed seed constituted the entire food.
The following plants were identified: Centaurea or bur thistle in 18
stomachs, alfilaria or filaree in 13, sunflower in 12, groundsel in 4,
mouse-car, rust weed, and tarweed in 2 each. As the goldfinch takes
a good deal of gravel into its stomach, many of the seeds are ground
SPARROW FAMILY. 73
up so that recognition is impossible. A few stomachs contained a
vegetable food that could not be identified, perhaps some large seed
broken up and discolored. Two stomachs containing this substance
were those of nestlings 12 days old. One was entirely filled with it,
but the other contained 75 percent of caterpillars.
SUMMARY.
There are probably few birds that do so little harm as the willow
goldfinch. Its animal food, though small in quantity, is composed
entirely of harmful insects. It eats no fruit and practically no grain.
Most of its food consists of the seeds of noxious or neutral plants. Its
food habits commend the bird, as much as its bright plumage and
fine song.
GREEN-BACKED GOLDFINCH.
(Astragalinus psaltria hesperophilus.)
The green-backed goldfinch (Pl. VI) occurs over most of California,
except the mountains and the deserts, and is one of the most abun-
dant birds. It is a lover of the orchard and garden, and delights to
linger along the roads and in weed patches. Its favorite feeding
grounds are in open pastures, where the bur thistle (Centaurea
melitensis) grows, a plant specially adapted to the wants of the gold-
finch, for it throws out from the roots short seed-bearing stalks that
bear seed, while the rest of the plant is making growth and getting
ready to produce the main crop. The goldfinches know where these
seeds are, and apparently get every one of them. Next in favor is the
groundsel (Senecio), which grows in orchards, and on the unripe seeds
of which the goldfinches feed to repletion. In the investigation of
the food of this bird 476 stomachs were examined. They were taken
in every month, and are well distributed, Animal food amounts to
1.7 percent and vegetable food to 98.3.
Animal food.—Animal food was contained in 50 stomachs, all
taken in the four months from June to September inclusive, except
one, which was taken in November. This stomach contained 20 per-
cent of some insect food, apparently flies. In one stomach taken in
September beetles formed 1 percent of the contents. No other trace
of a beetle was found. A small wasp or bee was identified in one
stomach, also taken in September. It amounted to 2 percent of the
contents and was the only hymenopterous insect found. Cater-
pillars amount to only a small fraction of 1 percent, and were con-
tained in 2 stomachs, one taken in June and the other in July.
The great bulk of the animal food was made up of Heme z
the form of plant lice. These were found in 46 stomachs ay UL
through the four months from June to September inclusive, ae
more than half of them were taken in August. One stomach was
"4 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
entirely filled with these insects, and in another 300 were counted.
Considered in relation to the food of the year, however, they amount
to only 1.6 percent. Many of these plant lice are of the kind com-
monly called woolly aphids, because their bodies are covered with
a white cottony appearing substance, really a white wax, which
exudes from the body of the insect. While the destruction of this
small number of insects may seem insignificant, yet the goldfinch is
oné of the forces that keep within reasonable bounds the immense
swarms of these prolific and pestiferous creatures. By far the greater
number of these aphids were found in the crops and not in the
stomachs; but as many of the latter were not accompanied by the
crops, possibly the goldfinch consumes many more of these insects
than is shown above. Then, too, aphids are very fragile, and by the
time they reached the stomach many of them were probably too much
reduced to be identified.
Vegetable food.—The vegetable food may be divided into 4 cate-
gories: Fruit, grain, weeds, and miscellaneous matter. Fruit was
found in 7 stomachs, all taken in June, July, and August. In one
case it was a berry with small seeds, which have not yet been identified ;
in the others it could be classed only as fruit pulp. Altogether it
amounts to three-tenths of 1 percent of the year’s food. A single
kernel of wheat was found in 1 stomach taken in December. Weed
seed is the standard food of this. goldfinch. It aggregates over 96
percent of the year’s diet, and in January and March nothing else is
eaten. The month of least consumption, August, shows over 86 per-
cent, and in every other month it is above 94. While several species
are eaten freely, the chief is the Napa, or bur thistle (Centaurea meli-
tensis), which was found in 243 of the 476 stomachs, and would seem
to be the staff of life of the goldfinch. It is asmall hard seed covered
with an apparently siliceous shell, with a hook at one end and a
bunch of stiff bristles at the other.“ Generally the bird skillfully
removes this shell and swallows only the starchy pulp. Many kinds
of weed seed were found in the 469 stomachs examined, and only 7
did not contain any; 394 contained nothing else.
Other vegetable food, some of it not satisfactorily identified and
some of it rubbish, amounts to 1} percent of the whole. In regard
to eating seeds of garden vegetables on seed farms, what was said of
the willow goldfinch will apply with equal truth to this species.
What seemed to be the petals of flowers were found in a few stomachs,
but did not reach a respectable percentage. It does not appear
that the green-backed goldfinch requires any other food than weed
seed, and of this one or two varieties suffice. The following is a list
@ Pl. II, fig. 1, Part I, opp. p. 16.
at
SPARROW FAMILY. 75
of the seeds identified and the number of stomachs in which each
species was found:
Sunflower (Helianthus sp.)... 2-22... 2220 ee eee ee 4
Lesser tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata) ...... 2.2... 2 0c ee eee ee ee 1
Tarweed (Madd $@UdG) en cccec so doen ec pei aewia oe oan nee Rese seem EeY 23
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula) -....-... 22.22.2222. 22022 e eee eee eee cece eee 10
Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). 2.2... eee eee 33
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)... 22.2... e eee eee eee 243
Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)... ......-...-----0 02 eevee ceeee ee eee eee 1
Turkey mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus)........2.-.- 22-202 e eee ceeneeeeeee eee ee es 18
Alfilaria (Hrodium cicutartum)... 2.2.2.2. 20-2 e eee ee ee cree eee eee 9
Black mustard (Brassica nigra)... ....--...-.- 222-022 e eee eee eee tees 1
Miner’s lettuce ( Montia perfoliata)...........--2-22-202002 22 eee eee eee eee 2
Red maids (Calandrinia menziesi).........-..- 02-22-2222 eee eee eee eee eee eee 1
Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflecus).......----2-0 2-220 eee ee cece eee eee eee 30
Chickweed (Stellaria media)... .....-. 22-02-2202 020e cece eee eee tee eeee 3
Catchy (SueneSp)) casos dnewker ee poencnase ek wnSAueLhae ee eend eadeeaeee 1
Knotweed (Polygonum sp.).......----- 2-0-2220 e cece ec e eee sree ete eteeess 2
Sorrel (Rumet: ep.) 2c. sac echoes a uuus cise sc asec euuieion y= Sule eae detetel ee 1
Sedge: ( Caret 8.)ic-sscusceonc cnneiieieg ano Minnhs noes ee Rise ee age oom aeegtens 6
SUMMARY.
If there are any faults in the food habits of the green-backed gold-
finch, the writer does not know them. The little animal food it con-
sumes consists of harmful insects, and practically all of its vegetable
food consists of seeds of useless or harmful weeds. This goldfinch
should be protected to the fullest extent.
INTERMEDIATE AND NUTTALL SPARROWS.
(Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli and nuttalli.)
One or the other of these two subspecies of the white-crowned
sparrow is found throughout the year in some part of California, and
in winter the intermediate (gambeli) is distributed nearly all over the
lower parts of the State. These sparrows frequent valleys, brushy
hillsides, highways, and cultivated fields. The only complaint against
them is that in spring and in winter they eat buds of fruit trees. Buds
are usually overabundant, and the loss of some 1s generally a benefit
to the tree; in any event it would require a very thorough disbudding
to do much damage.
For the investigation of the bird’s
able, taken in every month of the year,
by only one, and May and July by two each. The
7.4 percent of animal matter to 92.6 of vegetable. P
Animal food.—Beetles amount to 1.4 percent of the food. In sa
they reach nearly 8 percent, but in the other months are Lee ere
Practically all of them are harmful. Hymenoptera amount to
percent. In June they reach over 16 percent, but in the other mon
food, 516 stomachs were avail-
though August was represented
first analysis gives
76 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
rise barely above 1 percent. They were contained in 66 stomachs,
of which 48 held ants and 18 contained wasps and bees. Parasitic
species were noted in several stomachs.
Hemiptera amount to one-half of 1 percent, and were identified in
11 stomachs, of which 5 contained black olive scales; 2, leafhoppers;
3, stinkbugs; and 1, a tree hopper. Caterpillars are the largest item
of animal food and amount to about 3.5 percent. Most of them were
eaten in July, when they constituted 37.5 percent of the food, but as
only 2 stomachs were collected in that month, this record can not be
taken as final.
Vegetable food.—Fruit amounts to 4.5 percent. It was eaten rather
irregularly, but most of it from March to July, inclusive. A mere trace
was found in stomachs taken in September and October. Elder-
berries were found in 5 stomachs, blackberries or raspberries in 38,
figs in 3, cherries in 2, and in 1 a small berry not positively identi-
fied. The cherries were unripe and only partly grown. A little pulp
was noticed that might have been from some larger fruit. The great
bulk of it was taken in May, June, and July. Grain aggregates 8.6
percent. It was contained in 69 stomachs, as follows: Oats in 56,
wheat in 7, barley in 5, and corn in 1. Most of it was eaten in the
three winter months, a little in the fall and spring, but practically
none insummer. Only 3.5 percent was eaten in March, which would
seem to indicate that this bird does not devour the newly sown grain.
Like many other fringilline birds, white-crowned sparrows subsist
largely on weed seed. It is eaten freely in every month, and amounts
to 74 percent of the yearly food. June is the month of least consump-
tion, 33 percent, but that is the month when the most insects and fruit
are eaten. The 1 stomach taken in August was entirely filled with
this food, and it was over 90 percent of the contents of those taken in
September and October. Of the 516 stomachs only 38, or a little
more than 7 percent, contained no weed seed.
Following is a list of the species identified and the number of
stomachs in which each was contained:
Sunflower (Helianthus sp.)......00.220 0000 ccc ce cece cee ce ccecececceceeeeeeeees 3
Lesser tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata)... Si anced ag al Naa kg aba an ofa to ont eN ig 1
Tarweed.(:Madia: sativa) <ctagahsle te scse yo heb eepetica ute nae Ex erect tatedeh Wage 34
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula)...- 2.02... o ooo ce ccc ee ccncccunssseeeees 75
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)........00.0 000000 c ccc cece ceeececcueeeeceeees 38
Sow thistle (Sonchus asper).....2...0 00-000 c cece ccc ccc ccc cece cecccceseseeeees 4
Prickly lettuce (Lactuca scariola)........0.2-. 0000 cccccccccuceccceeceeeeeecsees 1
Nightshade (Solanum MANTEL) escent reverse eteekaoe a tose ital RNeasy a eee 70
SOM na (CUSs1a 8p.) ssa Arca cso see Lact ena ps talatan Sarah core abd oad deintig agusaree aces 7
MAUPIN GLAD US AD Vicia arm aee aetesabesas seie tees cick feces ees late al la abet cer 1
Clover (Dry lim Sp) ear ox fd yee alread ness ood oak Lcca th eid che cledteclaeeusitntes 1
Mountain lilac (Ceanothus sp.).....2.20c0cecceccceccccccccccccccceceeeeececeees 1
Porson, ole (Mhup diiprailoba), <a s ic ccoiatcnumnn-cxweceawecpewecendicencccsenae 12
Alfilaria (Erodium cicutariwm).......c.ccecccccccccceccccccecececcccceeeccceees 45
SPARROW FAMILY. "7
Geranium (Geranium dissectum)...........220000 2c eee cece eee eee 18
Black mustard (Brassica nigra).........-2- 0202-02002 c cece eee cece eee e eee 3
California poppy (Eschscholtzia californica)..........0..000020 202 e cece eee eee eee 1
Miner’s lettuce (Montia perfoliata)........-22220 0002 2c cece ccc eee eee eee 29
Red maids (Calandrinia menziest).....-..2--2222000ccee eee cece cee ee eeeeeee 4
Purslane (Portulaca oleracea) ...-....---222220 220222 eee e eee eeeee 4
Pigweed (Chenopodium album)....-....2--2--2--202000 cece eee eee cece edcree eas 12
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflecus)......--- 20-22-2020 e cee eee eee 208
Spurry (Spergula arvensis) .......-..2- 2-02 e cee eee eee ee 10
Chickweed (Stellaria media) .........22022200 2020 eee e eee eee e teen ees 16
Catchfly ((Stlene spin) ewes cscereetie 2 sce ccsarsin dna « Aggie de oes vee Guede oe eee Eee 29
Knotweed (Polygonum sp.)....-..--.--0- 220-022 e eee eee eee ee eee eee 76
Sorrell (RuMev isp 7) oso ceccetetiecrseecrsic ate ceneen is Som eens Se ee orem meneame ere 18
Brome grass (Bromus sp.)..-..- ee Sik soca doy a renege Anse: Groaees 20
Wild oats (Avena fattia):. 00 cc.c2cecicdecscsle cage ee cain ee eeeeee eee eee eee ee 34
Canary seed (Phalaris canariensis).......---+-+2++-202 2222 c eee e eee e eee eee 2
Johnson grass (Andropogon sorghum)........---22-+-22-22-2 cece cece eee ee eeeeeeee 1
Sedge (Carex sp.)....----------- te aint Rec senesced ath ecm Rite eee tui endows 11
Unidentified 2. mecceeusvicedrei ie ened yea ae owed cag ge cba cae Sa eines 168
As this bird takes a great deal of gravel, the seeds eaten are soon
ground into paste, which renders specific identification impossible.
Many stomachs were entirely filled with food in this condition, which
accounts for the large amount of unidentified material. Very few
whole seeds were unidentified. The white-crown is evidently fond
of variety, for several stomachs contained as many as 9 different
species of seeds. It will be noted also that rough pigweed is the
favorite food, while the Arkansas goldfinch preferred bur thistle.
Miscellaneous vegetable matter amounts to 5 per cent, and was
found in 30 stomachs. Of these, 11 contained fragments of flowers,
probably of fruit trees, for in, some cases the embryo fruit could be
made out. This is not a very heavy indictment on the score of
destroying buds and blossoms. Fibrous vegetable matter of uncer-
tain origin was found in quite a number of stomachs; perhaps it was
grass which had been subjected to the grinding action of the stomach.
SUMMARY.
Evidently neither the farmer nor the fruit grower has much to fear
from the white-crowned sparrow. On the contrary the bird destroys
some insects, all of which are harmful, and a vast number of seeds of
noxious weeds. The little fruit it eats is mostly wild, and its grain
eating is practically confined to the months when the only grain
available is waste or volunteer. In the above record there is little
to substantiate the accusation that the bird destroys fruit buds, and
probably it is only under very exceptional circumstances that it does
any damage in this way.
78 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
GOLDEN-CROWNED SPARROW.
(Zonotrichia coronata.)
The golden-crowned sparrow arrives in California from the north
in September, and departs for its summer residence in April. In
winter it spreads over the country, lives wherever food can be obtained,
except perhaps in the forest, and may often be seen in the garden
among the fruit trees or in the rose bushes. It is also found in lonely
canyons or on the cattle ranges in the hills. In general appearance
and in food habits it does not differ essentially from the white-crown.
For the determination of its food 184 stomachs were available, taken
from October to April, inclusive. The animal food amounts to 0.9
percent, vegetable to 99.1.
Animal food.—The animal food consists of insects, and is pretty
well distributed among the various orders. No great quantity was
found in any one stomach, and it is eaten so rarely and in such small
quantities that the wonder is that it is eaten at all. Singularly
enough two worker honeybees were found in one stomach. It is
evident that the golden-crown does not search for insects, and takes
only those that come in its way.
Vegetable food—The vegetable food consists of fruit, buds and
flowers, grain, and some miscellaneous matter. Fruit can not be a
prominent item in the food of this sparrow, owing to the time of year
it spends in California. One stomach taken in March contained a
little fruit pulp, probably left over from the previous season. Fruit
was found also in 2 stomachs taken in October and in 2 taken in
November. In one it consisted of elderberries; in one, of grape; in
another, it was thought to be apple; while in the fourth, it was
unidentifiable. In all, it amounts to a little more than 1 percent
of the food. Remains of buds and flowers were found in stomachs
taken in every month of the bird’s stay in the State, except October
and November, when buds are very small. They were found in 56
stomachs; the average for the season is 29.5 percent, and in March
it rises to nearly 78 percent. Where this bird is abundant, it may do
mischief if it visits the orchards. In the stomach of no other species
yet examined has been found so much of this kind of food, which
makes it probable that much of the bud and flower eating imputed
to the linnet and white-crown is really done by the golden-crown.
Grain was eaten during every month of the bird’s stay in the State,
but as none of these was a harvest month, little damage was done.
March, the sowing month, showed but little more than 5 percent,
while over 66 percent was eaten in January. The average for the
season was nearly 26 percent. It was found in 23 stomachs, of
which 12 contained oats; 6, wheat; 2, barley; 2, corn; and 1, doubtful.
SPARROW FAMILY. 719
Weed seed amounts to 33 percent of the food and is eaten in every
month. It is, however, complementary to the bud and blossom
food, the one increasing as the other decreases. Weed seed begins
with a percentage of 83 in October, and gradually diminishes, while
buds and blossoms appear first in December with 22 percent and
increase to their maximum in April.
Below is a list of species identified, showing the number of stomachs
in which each was contained:
Tarweed, CMadid: 8ai0d) xcnis ctoten's ve eat aeh c hele Sadek sd See oon MALU Eae ewes i.
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula)......-..2. 2.200202 0 0c cece eee eee eee eee 15
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)............00 00000 c cece eee eee eee 18
Nightshade. (Solanum nigrum): 3.202 cc2wcee sie ce ey so 24 scadeaeiecloexankeseasws 16
Lupine: (biipinus sp. ees venaeee eva cn eiedeeee cue Lees celta Seossinnaeee ee 1
Clover (Trifolium sp.)......--.----2-.22- 22-022 e eee eee eee eee 2
Turkey mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus)......-.22222200200e cee eee ce eee eee ee eee 2
Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba)............00-0-0 0-0-0020 e eee ee eee eee eee 30
Alfilaria (Erodiwm cicutarium)....-...2.---0-0.--0 eee e eee ene eee eee eee 16
Geranium (Geranium dissectum) ......... 2202-22-00 2 00 o vee e eee e eee e tees 16
Mustard (Brassica nigra)........2-.-02.2-02 ec eee eee ee eee eee eee ences 1
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)......-2-.22.02002-000 222 ee ere eee eee 18
Spurry (Spergula arvensis).......---- 222-202-200 eee eee eects 4
Chickweed (Stellaria media)..............0-02 20002 een eee center eee ees 10
Catchfly (Silene ep) .ceseue succes cee cs precession eee 1
Knotweed (Polygonum sp.)....---------+002e2 eee e eee reece eet eee eeteeee ees 10
Sorrel (Rumex sp.).....--22-----+- aii at EE Misti caty een tea tat 10
Brome grass (Bromus sp.)...-.-----2--2-2 200-02 e treet eters eects 11
Sedge (Carex sp.)..-...-2-------- ene eP SERN TE SOAP EE A a eer Te TR LS ee 1
Séodsvof ‘conifer ccs iiisvc ateleyal tone sens earnndeineare ees Ieee aaeeceoeenee 1
UW Mid en tin eel: sooo eta atacand tn ern eA PAINS See St cot bee Bt ce ge (erateeencie 39
The last item includes stomachs in which the food was ground to a
pulp, rendering identification impossible. Few whole seeds were
unidentified. Poison-oak seeds are indicated as found in 30 stomachs,
but as a matter of fact not a single seed of that plant was seen In any
stomach. The birds ate only the wax which surrounds those seeds
and which contains certain woody granules by which it can at once
be identified. This species, then, does not aid in the dissemination of
these noxious plants.
SUMMARY.
From the foregoing it is evident that the golden-crown during its
stay in California does but little service in destroying insects. On
the other hand, it does no direct harm to fruit, and little, if any, to
grain. It does good by destroying weed seed, although not as much
as some other species. By the destruction of buds and blossoms 1t
may do serious harm where it is numerous and visits the orchards.
80 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
WESTERN CHIPPING SPARROW.
(Spizella passerina arizonz.)
The western chipping sparrow occurs during the breeding season
and early fall over most of the State, and winters sparingly in the
southern part. Like its eastern relative it is very domestic, and often
builds its nests in gardens and orchards. The bird well merits the
name socialis, now, unhappily, superseded, and its gentle and con-
fiding ways endear it to all bird lovers. It is one of the most insectiv-
‘orous of all the sparrows, and is valuable in the garden or about the
farm.
For the investigation of this bird’s food 96 stomachs were available.
They were taken from April to October inclusive, and probably give
a fair idea of the food for that part of the year. It is quite likely
that the winter food consists largely, if not entirely, of weed seeds, as
4 stomachs taken in the southern part of the State in winter (not
included in this investigation) were almost entirely filled with this
food. The first division of the stomachs’ contents gives 45 percent
of animal food and 55 percent of vegetable.
Animal food.—The animal food consists of insects and spiders, with
a few bits of eggshell. Beetles were eaten from April to August inclu-
sive, with the maximum of 23 percent in July. In one stomach were
the remains of 30 weevils or snout beetles, but so badly crushed and
broken that specific identification was impossible. The average
monthly percentage is 6.7. Hymenoptera amount to 11.8 percent.
They are represented mostly by ants, with which several stomachs
were entirely filled. The greatest quantity were eaten in June, when
they aggregated 67.5 percent, or more than four-fifths of the animal
food for the month. In the other months they were taken rather
irregularly and in small quantities.
Hemiptera are eaten to the average extent of 7.5 percent. They
appear rather irregularly, and the greatest, consumption is in October,
20 percent. None were found in August or September stomachs, but
as only 4 were collected in October, and not many in the two previous
months, the record can not be considered as fully reliable. They con-
sist of stinkbugs and leafhoppers, with a few others, of which the
most interesting are scales and plant lice. These were each found in
5 stomachs. The scales were the black olive species (Saissetia olez).
Diptera, or flies, do not appear to be favorite food with the chipping
sparrow. They were eaten only in the months from April to July
inclusive, with the maximum consumption in May, when about 12
percent were taken, or more than half of all. The average per month
is only 3 percent.
Caterpillars are evidently the favorite animal food, as they were
eaten to an average extent of 14.7 percent, or more than any other
SPARROW FAMILY. 81
insect. They appear in the food during every month of the bird’s
stay in the north except October, and probably a greater number of
stomachs would have shown some in that month. Two stomachs
contained pup of the codling moth. Only one stomach held grass-
hoppers, and that was taken in June. Some spiders and eggshells
make up nearly 1 percent, and complete the animal food.
Vegetable food.—Grain in the shape of oats was found in 5 stomachs,
all collected in July. The total amount for that month is 6 percent,
or less than 1 percent for the season. A mere trace of fruit was found
in one stomach in June. Weed seed was eaten in every month of the
bird’s stay, and probably throughout the year. It amounts to over
53 percent of the food, and in September rises to 98 percent. June
was the month of least, consumption, 9 percent, when insects evidently
took its place. The species identified, and the number of stomachs
in which each was found, are as follows:
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)......0.0---- <0 00 oeee ee cecececeec ccc. 2
Nightshade (Solanum nigrum).......----00-- <2 ccc cecccceecec eee. 1
Alfllaria (Erodium cicutariwm)...0..2.0.00020 0020000 o oven eee cece. 37
Miner’s lettuce ( Montia POV OUOIA) 5 2.2 secs cesarean cia ceayesniaca’ alee to acre Sede apsiacereoaeat OY 3
Red maids (Calindrinia menzeisi)..... 0... 20-20-0000 ove vee cece eee. 2
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retro LCDS x urine tan a nAuacet ecu A site e ete a 16
Chickweed (Stellaria media).......2..020200-00ce0 cece eee e cece eee 13
Knotweed (Polygonum BPS dS eine Ac techh hee ae yeinnd Matas 33.02 ale ans 1
Timothy (Phlewm pratense).......20.2.00.2000c0ccececcccecccceeeceeeeecceee 1
Meadow grass (Poa sp.)......222..200cceecceecccecceeceeeeeeceeeceescececee it
Panic grass (Panicum sanguinale)...... 2.2. .0.0-0-0cceeececececececeseseseeees 2
Wild oats (Avena POL UO) rom ac gd peas Uw fe cetyl ag Wy afte ays, GR eee 1
Bede (Carexap x revenues than octet tt ed ed cons Ct | «Vali 2
WIN ent red ae th date el ted whieh iceR ve Bx, Set A a Ra ad Sante cescn AA Ee 32
Most of the unidentified seeds were so badly ground up that it was
impossible to recognize the species. The greater part probably
belonged to species included in the above list. A few very small
grass seeds were not further identified. ;
Feeding the young.—A nest with 4 young of this species, about 6 days
old when first observed, was watched at different hours on four days.
On the morning of the fifth day a pair of jays carried off the young
birds. In the seven hours of observation 119 feedings were noted,
or an average of 17 feedings per hour, or four and one-fourth feedings
per hour to each nestling. This would give for a day of fourteen hours
at least 238 insects destroyed by the brood.
SUMMARY.
In the foregoing discussion of the food of the enppiee aa ie
Plainly appears that the diet is made up almost exclusively o -
ful elements. No useful beetles of any consequence were eaten.
ymenoptera, ants, which are either harmful or neutral, predominate,
38301—Bull. 34—10-—6
82 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
while caterpillars, which are a universal pest, are the favorite animal
food. In the vegetable portion of the diet fruit and grain appear as
mere traces, while the seeds of noxious weeds make up the bulk of
the food. It is not necessary to further eulogize this bird, as it is
already welcomed everywhere, as it should be.
WESTERN SNOWBIRD.
(Junco hyemalis thurberi and other subspecies.)
Several subspecies of junco occur in California. One form, J.
pinosus, is a resident of the Monterey Bay region the year round.
Another, thurberi, is a resident of the State throughout the year, but
winters in the valleys and breeds in the mountains. Two others,
oreganus and connectens, occur in winter only, when all the forms
spread out and cover a considerable part of the State. It would be
better to treat the four races separately, but as many of the stomachs
were collected before the races were recognized, their exact identity
is unknown. They will be discussed, therefore, as a whole, but what
is said of summer food will not apply to oreganus and connectens.
For this investigation 269 stomachs were available. They were
collected in every month except May. March, April, June, and
August are poorly represented, but the other months have each a
good quota. The first analysis of the food gives 24 percent of animal
matter to 76 of vegetable.
Amimal food.—Beetles amount to 5 percent, and nearly all were
eaten in the months from March to July inclusive, with no record
for May. With the exception of two ladybirds (Coccinellide) found
in 2 stomachs, not a useful species was identified in the whole.
Weevils make up the bulk of this item, and a species of scolytid
(Phleosinus punctatus) was found in 1 stomach to the extent of
65 percent of its contents. Hymenoptera were represented mostly
by ants, with a few wasps, amounting in all to a little more than 2
percent of the food. Caterpillars are apparently the favorite insect
food, forming 9.4 percent of the diet. The great bulk were eaten
from April to August, and the single stomach taken in August con-
tained 67 percent of them. No special pest was identified. Bugs,
grasshoppers, a few other insects, and spiders, make up the remainder
of the animal food, 7.3 percent.
Vegetable food.—Seeds of blackberry or raspberry were found in
1 stomach and elderberries in 2. In 14 stomachs taken in November
was found fruit pulp averaging over 11 percent of the food of the
month. As all fruit except olives is harvested before that time,
probably the berries were of no value.
Grain was eaten from October to March inclusive, and amounted
to 8 percent for the year. All of it was contained in 30 stomachs, as
SPARROW FAMILY. “3
follows: Oats in 15, wheat in 9, barley in 4, corn in 1, and unidenti-
fied in 1. None was taken in a harvest month. The great st
‘amount, more than 30 percent, was eaten in March, the sov ing
month, probably much of it from newly sown fields.
Weed seed aggregates 61.8 percent of the food, and was eaten in.
every month. In September it amounted to nearly 95 percent. A
few seeds, mostly of grass, were not identified. The following is a
list of identified species and the number of stomachs in which each
was contained:
i
Rapweed:(-Ambrosa spy): ones accn to. selec ot aniede wos aca nhtna eee wee 1
Tarweed (Madia sativa).........2.0.020 02 cece eee eee ee eee cee eee e ee eeee 4
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula)...... 2.22.22. 20202 c eee c eee eee cece cece eee eee 11
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)............2.02.22000 0020 cee cence cece eee eeee 16
Sow thistle (Sonchus asper).......... 000202020 eve e cece cece ee eee cece cece cess 2
Nightshade (Solanum nigrum)......... 002.2202. 0 ee cece cece cece cece ceeceeeseee 11
Lipine (Lupinus'sp sce cose cctcce cob ennnus 822s BARGE ds {Sodas wea tdurena aoe ees i)
Clover (Trifolium sp.)......2..0- 02.02 cece eee cee cee cee cece eee ceeseeecteeeeee 1
Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba).....0-.-22---2-20-20ccccecceeecseceseectseceseess 13
Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium).......2..2000000 00020 c coon eee eee eee 34
Geranium (Geranium dissectum)..........20.2002 000 cee eevee eee eee eee eee 4
Mustard.(Brassica:nigra).: 26000 ods os oes goede sesc deka See Re 3
Miner’s lettuce (Montia perfoliata)............ 02222000. 00c cece eee ee eees 13
Red maids (Calandrinia menziesi).............-00220020200ececeece eee e eet e tees 2
Purslane (Portulaca DIG Ce a erste Sa ee wird a senc haber are a ate tae SN at cee nea Nek 1
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflecus)..,....--.-..222--2+e2eeeee cece eceeeeee 35
Spurry (Spergula arvensis)......2...2 22220000 cc cece ccc c eee eee cents e eee eeeeee 9
Chickweed (Stallanta tWedia).aoccsasscediccan 228enedenanny reen¥ieessepeceuee: 42
Catchfly (Silene sp.)...-2..0.20eeeeccece cece cece ec ceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees sererte ee 21
Knotweed (Polygonum BD sears as celeeineeiaty SHG Senn snean es ee aS 33
BOE Citateio sheet 0 eg) eas xc ap duueana tanec mennauaeecesseta st eeResee 26
Wild oats (Avena fata ec cc cies 2: jckistdd esters fe ee ee eee een A SAAR :
Timothy (Phlewm pratense)..........-2--- 02-2000 e cece cece cece se ctee settee t
Panic grass (Panicum BD: Seca ein nndae teak Gana pecrose Ss ; A
Rede e(UGRe Seis tudes naa vavanimamans = keccnmcars veg uenete somes me
Coniferous seeds not identified............-------2+eeeceee octet teeters 4
Wind entifleds acest ii el oss genta engnne wae esol weds BES LES ESE N 2
Remains of blossoms were found in 1 stomach. The seeds of
poison oak were not discovered in the stomachs, but the characteristic
granules that are embedded in the waxy coating of the seeds were
identified, thus showing that the birds eat this wax without swallow-
ing the seed itself.
SUMMARY.
The insect food of the snowbirds is composed almost entirely of
harmful species, of which caterpillars form the largest item. Snow-
birds do no damage to fruit or grain. They eat large quantities of
weed seeds, thereby rendering a service to agriculture.
84 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
WESTERN SONG SPARROW.
(Melospiza melodia samuelis, heermani, and other subspecies.)
Song sparrows inhabit not only the greater part of California but
all of the United States, except areas where conditions are unsuitable.
These birds vary much in habits, as well as in size and coloration.
Some forms live along streams bordered by deserts, others in swamps
among bulrushes and tules, others in timbered regions, others on
rocky barren hillsides, and still others in rich fertile valleys. Each
area has its peculiar form, and in fact it is hard to imagine any locality
adapted to a land bird of the Temperate Zone which does not fit some
form of the song sparrow. With such a variety of habitat, the food
of the species necessarily varies considerably. It is impossible to
treat here the several forms separately, and the best we can do is to
give a general idea of the yearly diet of the species as a whole.
For the investigation of the food of the western song sparrows, 321
stomachs, belonging to 4 or 5 subspecies, were available. They
were collected in every month of the year, and fairly represent the
whole State. The first analysis separates the food into 21 percent
of animal matter and 79 of vegetable. This is less animal food than
is eaten by the snowbird, much less than by the chipping sparrow,
but much more than by the white-crowned or golden-crowned
sparrows.
Animal food.—Animal food, consisting principally of insects, is
eaten with a fair degree of regularity through the year. Beginning
with a minimum of 3 percent in September, based on the examina-
tion of 97 stomachs, it rises gradually to a maximum of over 71
percent in May. Beetles are the largest item, and a greater or less
number were eaten every month except December, an omission
probably accidental. The average for the year is 6.6 percent. In
June, the month of greatest consumption, nearly 29 percent were
eaten. With the exception of the remains of tiger beetles (Cicin-
delide) in 3 stomachs and predaceous ground beetles (Carabide) in
10, all were of harmful families, the leaf beetles (Chrysomelide) and
weevils (Rhynchophora) being most prominent.
Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) were taken very irregularly,
and amount to only 3 percent of the food. Ants were found in 22
stomachs, and bees and wasps in 20. Hemiptera, or bugs, form only
about 2 percent of the year’s food, but 17 percent of the food eaten
in May. The black olive scale was found in 2 stomachs and a species
not identified in 1. Leafhoppers, spittle insects (Cercopide), and
a few other forms make up the rest of this item. Diptera (flies) were
eaten from May to September inclusive. In May they amount to
over 11 per cent, but fall away rapidly, and the aggregate for the
year is only 2 percent. A few crane flies (Tipulide) and the house
fly family (Muscide) were the only forms recognized.
SPARROW FAMILY, 85
Caterpillars, while taken in nearly every month, were eaten very
irregularly and to the extent of 4.3 percent only. There was a fair
percentage from March to August inclusive, but in other months a
trifle or none, except December, in which 5 percent were found. May
shows the greatest amount, 14 percent. Grasshoppers are apparently
not relished by the song sparrow. A mere trace of these insects was
found in a few stomachs collected in February, May, June, and August.
They do not form an appreciable percentage of the food. A few
insects too finely pulverized for recognition, some spiders, and a few
snails make up the remainder of the animal food, 2.5 percent.
Vegetable food.—Evidence of fruit eating was found in 19 stomachs
as follows: Seeds of Rubus (blackberries or raspberries) in 9, elder-
berries in 4, cherries in 2, figs in 1, and fruit pulp or skins in 3. In
all it amounts to a trifle more than 2 percent of the food. Grain was
absent in all stomachs collected from February to June inclusive, and
in November. What was eaten in the other months comes to a little
more than 3 percent for the year. The most, 11 percent, was taken
in January, but July shows very nearly the same. This last was
perhaps gleaned from the field. The varieties are as follows: Barley
found in 7 stomachs, oats in 5, and wheat in 2.
The chief food of the song sparrow is weed seed. This amounts
to 73 percent of the year’s food, and varies from one-fifth to very
nearly the whole of each month’s diet. In September, when animal
food is at its minimum, weed seed reaches a little more than 93 per-
cent. On the other hand, in May, when animal food is at its maxi-
mum, weed seed shrinks to a little less than 21 percent. Of the 321
stomachs, 302, or 94 percent, contained weed seed. Of these, 171,
or 53 percent of all, were completely filled with it. There were only
19 stomachs that did not contain more or less of this food. The
record of this sparrow for eating weed seed is excelled by only four
species of California birds—the linnet, the two goldfinches, and the
white-crowned sparrow. :
Following are the species of weed seeds identified and the number
of stomachs in which each was found:
Sareflorand Balai sip Nees coauceliss cal ve udaesdednn Mean saree ee 1
Lesser tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata) ...---.------+----scrrr ttre :
Tabwaed (Morita sata) ces < we sewiln dee Sane tekt eo oes Se See ne A :
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula)......--.-----2---.ccctrccr "
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)....------------20retcccttt E
Sow thistle (Sonchus asper and oleraceus)...------------770rvsvvr :
Salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius)....---------++2-2-tr rrr :
Henbit (Lamium amplevicaule).....-.-------020cccrccrss Se
Nightshade (Solanum nigrum)...----------20esccrrrscss :
Nine bark (Opulaster opulifolius).......----++2+--0crteer :
Turkey mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus)...----+-2---0rrersvrssses eg
Poison oak (Rhus diveratloba).........--sesceecoe-ececteeeenssseeesestee et e
Alfilaria (Erodiwm cicutartum).....-.-2+2.eececereceserters eee
86 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY,
Geranium (Geranium carolinianum).......-. 2.220202 2222 eee eee eee 1
Mustards (Brassica PG?) xvas: ie ici mente iS ane SS, wk oye iaiaisleae oa edan eee 1
Miner’s lettuce (Montia perfoliata)......--.- 2.202202 002020 e eee eee 26
Red maids (Calandrinia menz1est) watcicorscrneisa vad ere od ANE Ree ae 6
Pigweed (Chenopodium album).......---------+-002 022 eee eee e eee eee eee 1
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflecus) ....-....--2.-2--220-02 20022022 e eee ee eee 113
Spurry (Spergula arvensis).........------ (eG ads 2 bs A See ee aes 12
Chickweed (Stellaria media)... .....- 2... 2-2-2222 0 02 nneeeeeee 32
Catch fly (Stlene spe) ex catyccsdse nes Lb thai Sad Shed eens Sele treacaan canes 3
Knotweed (Polygonum sp.)....-...-------- geese ROE Mnencnasin nee A AA: 44
Sorrel. CRumerisp )niccuigs suxcisie ve vee cede aeeean ec oee ed cekuiguleba SWAN gee 16
Brome ‘grasa CBromusiep.): 2ss222 =: cseedevusus@ee: see och by eden siete eseueey 4
Wildcats: (Avena fatua)qse-ces os ois Sere aeeee 2a geo ba cee euiasen case et 14
Timothy.CP hletm pratense) cccd sen foe ceo ese eee ees Bese cede ecded Laake 1
Canary seed (Phalaris caroliniana).......-..-2---- +--+ 2-202 -e ee eee eee eee 2
Hox tail Chactochlod 6p, \a20e oa02 2 nectarines c22526e..oneouescenmaceeeie 1
Panic grass (Panicum sanguinale)...-.....-------0--0--2 2222 eee eee eee eee 4
Sedge (Carer 8D) .0.cacoeaiesatiane oe is see awe Ne oe Ss Se eee aweacees jen 8
Unidentified se ceacawanweueiiaisse se ose. sstgeese iene eee aes aeeeiuleenlacncds 97
As usual, the unidentified were either ground to pulp or were seeds
of some unknown grass. Evidently the rough pigweed seed (Ama-
ranthus) is the favorite. Several stomachs contained nothing else.
SUMMARY.
The economic status of the song sparrow can be summarized in a
few words. It eats a comparatively small number of insects, the
majority of which are noxious. Fruit and grain are eaten so little
as to be of no consequence. Nearly three-fourths of the diet consists
of seeds of weeds, most of which are a nuisance. Neither stomach
examinations nor field observations furnish evidence that the song
sparrow does any harm.
SPOTTED TOWHEE.
(Pipilo maculatus and subspecies.)
Under one or other of its several subspecific forms the spotted
towhee occurs almost throughout California. As it is resident over
much of its range, the good or harm it does continues through the
year. It is eminently a bird of the ground and underbrush, and
delights in the thickest shrubbery, where it scratches among the dead
leaves and twigs. Anyone who approaches the bushes too closely
will probably see the bird depart from the opposite side and plunge
into another thicket, and in this way one may chase it for hours with
no more than an Secusiandl glimpse. This bird is not common about
orchard or garden, the chaparral-covered hillsides and canyons being
more congenial resorts. It is abundant and widely distributed, and
hence is comparatively important from an economic point of view.
For the investigation of the food of this bird 139 stomachs were
at hand, collected in every month of the year, though November to
May inclusive were not represented as fully as was desirable. The
SPARROW FAMILY. 87
first analysis of the food gives 24 percent of animal matter to 76 of
vegetable. Dead leaves, bits of twigs, rotten wood, and other rub-
bish are very common in the stomachs, and probably are swallowed
accidentally with more nutritious morsels.
Animal food.—Beetles are the largest item of animal food, and
amount to a little more than 10 percent. Although the larger part
of the towhee’s living is gleaned from the ground, only 4 stomachs
contained the remains of predaceous ground beetles, and 2 others
the remains of ladybirds (Coccinellide). Weevils were found in 26
stomachs, and in 13 stomachs were the remains of that harmful
chrysomalid beetle Diabrotica soror. Besides these were fragments
of elaterids, buprestids, and cerambycids, all of which in the larval
state bore into trees and other plants and do great mischief. Hymen-
optera amount to 6 percent of the diet, but are eaten rather irregu-
larly. They are mostly taken in summer, but some appear at all
times of the year. They were found in 39 stomachs, of which 25
contained ants, and 14, wasps and bees.
Bugs (Hemiptera) amount to 14 percent, and are distributed among
several families; but the only point that merits mention is that the
black olive scale was found in 4’stomachs and an unidentified scale
inl. The spotted towhee does not appear to care for grasshoppers.
They form only 1.7 percent of the year’s food, and are eaten very
irregularly. In June they reach a little more than 11 percent, in
August they amount to only 6 percent, and few were found in other
months. Caterpillars aggregate 3.5 percent of the food. They are
eaten rather irregularly, without much regard to season, but the
greatest number, 12 percent, were taken in April. A few flies, some
other insects, spiders, millepeds, and sowbugs (Oniscus) make up
about 3 percent, the remainder of the animal food. These last are
just what the bird would be expected to get by scratching among
underbrush.
Vegetable food.—Fruit was eaten in every month from May to
November inclusive, with a good percentage in each month. Janu-
ary also shows 11.7 percent, but this was either wild or waste. The
average for the year is 17.7 percent. The month of greatest consump-
tion was November, when it amounted to 53.6 percent. All of it
was in the shape of fruit pulp, not further identifiable. At that time
of year it could have been of no value. Fruit pulp, identified only
as such, was found in 23 stomachs. Rubus seeds and pulp (rasp-
berries or blackberries) were found in 23 stomachs; cherries, grapes,
and figs in 1 each. Elderberries (Sambucus glauca) were found in :
stomachs, snowberries (Symphoricarpos racemosus) in 3, and blac
twinberries (Lonicera involucrata) in 1. The fruit eaten in J une and
July was almost entirely Rubus fruit, which may have been either
wild or cultivated, except in one case, where the seeds of Logan
88 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
berries were identified. In August and September the fruit eaten
was of the larger varieties, like apricots, peaches, and prunes. Later
in the year the wild kinds only were taken. The one stomach which’
contained cherries was collected the last of May. If this bird were
as abundant as the linnet, it would do considerable damage to the
larger fruits. Under present conditions its depredations probably
pass unnoticed.
Grain was eaten from June to December, inclusive, except in
November. The amount for the year is 4.7 percent. In August, the
month of greatest consumption, 16 percent was taken. .It was found
in 17 stomachs, of which 10 contained oats; 3, wheat; 3, corn; and
1, barley. As most of this was gleaned after harvest, probably no
harm was done.
Weed seed is a standard article of diet with this bird, as with
many others. It was found in 93 of the 139 stomachs, and 11 con-
tained nothing else. The average amount for the year is 34.6 per-
cent of the food, and it was found in every month except March;
but as only one bird was collected in that month, the exception is
probably accidental. January was the month when most was eaten,
62.8 percent, but as some other months stood nearly as high, this
has no special significance. Bur thistle seems to be the favorite
seed, although the towhee does not show so strong a preference for
any weed as some other species exhibit.
Following is a list of species identified and the number of stomachs
in which each was found:
Tarweed:( Madia-savwva) oc. ecco. tedec'snddo8 eb cad caddeieidddclawdadeas sdaaluses 10
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)........00.00 ccc cece ce eee eee eee ee es 27
Nightshade (Solanwm igri) scis sce aiavacs ees 22 as oo 4 eae eralme eee eee 8
Plantain (Plantagoiaviccolattn) 2.2. 2ees $ cera eee a egiwao esta ae hee 1
CTA, CASSIS PN co ook ccsyaaype care covesc ceases vas ca ocie ave avaronavakaneaasasanecor tera taeeeunderen eels 1
Clowe nn (CT rife Mires Spy) ccc cpat fase ak de ecto ys ate ae acolo ocho ase ne oy esas 1
JLegtimicsmnidentined . on3 co iies eal nian se oaoa 6 2 eines ata yee leita SS 3
Turkey mullein (Zremocarpos setigerus)..........0000020 00020 e cece eee eee eee 2
Poisonsoak(Rius diverslOba) secu. weiss ovo oe se daveai eect sae (led ee ee os payee ll
IS UNTAELCH CHEN SAI Vict 8 ate hat hac pce ne tsa aa he a ae as ede Paetith seat aCe Nis 1,
Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium).....-.-..00000000 cece cece eee ee eee e nee n eens abt
IMU tAiels CBrGSSt COWRA) gaps. ecsvcseeyaperae eae aS = laste aerononene eee Seed ween doiciale 1
Miners’ lettuce (.Montia perfoliata)............0...00cee ccc eeccecn eee eeee 8
Red maids (Calandrinia menziesi) 2
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflevus) ........00002 000 eee ee ee eee eee il
Chitvhkweed (Stellaria medias secs cc.t stood enka 44 or auidennbaled of28 5404s SegeEEE? 8
Knotweed (Polygonum ap.). 02.02.0202. cece eee cee cece eee cece cee eceneeeee 4
SOBRE] CRUM Gri BD) nak ato eae citer oh ey eaneea ae ai cena in ON eiatalehen ari Uerbetan ans 5
ANT OU OSH CAD er IAP), scrccceccctcuste nn isin spree ars anand een eet etin nea a a8 ges a a cerhe oa Be 9
CULE Cs COG POMEB Bi) sche aestauvcxcteacttevsnsstine: anally chs tgaalabaiapeh netfee eu mtcesidu a dcarai aes 3
Unidentified 34
Another article of the towhee’s food is mast. It is somewhat difficult
to distinguish between mast and weed seed when both are ground to a
pulp. As divided, however, mast amounts to 15.6 percent of the
SPARROW FAMILY. 89
food. It was found in moderate quantities in stomachs collected
from September to February inclusive, and in April also it reached
25 percent, with a trace in June. February was the month in which
most was eaten, 46.5 percent. It was found in only 22 stomachs,
but 8 of them were completely filled with it. Leaf galls and some
unidentified vegetable matter make up a little more than 3 percent,
and complete the vegetable food.
SUMMARY.
The spotted towhee is not numerous enough to inflict any great
damage, whatever its food habits. Should it become very abundant
it might do harm to fruit; but it is so shy that the more the country
is cleared and settled the more rare is it likely to become.
CALIFORNIA TOWHEE.
(Pipilo crissalis and senicula.)
In rural communities on the Pacific coast, the California towhee
occupies a place similar to that of the robin in the east. It is quite
domestic in habits, and not only is it a familiar sight about orchards
and gardens, but it often builds its nest in the shrubbery and vines
around the house. Its habits are somewhat more terrestrial than
those of the robin, and the fruit it eats is largely that which it finds
on the ground. Like the spotted towhee, it forages much under
bushes and vines, scratching among the rubbish for food; however, it
does not confine itself to such places, but frequents also the open
ground, looking for insects and seeds. At such times a pair are
almost invariably seen together. The species does not migrate.
One or other of its subspecies inhabits most of the valley and foot-
hill country of California west of the Sierra Nevada and San Jacinto
mountains.
For the study of the bird’s food 399 stomachs were available, col-
lected in every month, with a fair number in each month. The first
analysis gives 14.26 percent of animal food to 85.74 of vegetable.
The animal food consists of insects and a few spiders, millepeds, and
snails. The vegetable part is made up of fruit, grain, weed seeds;
and a few miscellaneous substances.
Animal food.—The largest item of the animal food consists of bee-
tles, which amount to 5 percent. The predaceous ground beetles
(Carabide) were found in 30 stomachs, and were the only useful
beetles eaten. Weevils, or snout beetles, were found in 55 stomachs,
of which 1 contained 15. Among them was identified one speci-
men of Calandra oryza, the rice weevil, an insect that does much harm
to rice. A decidedly harmful species of chrysomelid beetle (Diabro-
tica soror) was found in 43 stomachs. All the other beetles, which
belong to several families, are harmful. While beetles were eaten in
every month except December, the great bulk were taken from April
90 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
to July, inclusive. In June they amount to nearly 15 percent, which
is the highest for any month.
Hymenoptera amount to less than 2 percent. They consist of ants
found in 47 stomachs and bees or wasps in 23 stomachs. Hemiptera,
or bugs, are eaten to a small extent in nearly every month, but do
not reach a high percentage in any. The maximum, 6 percent, occurs
inMarch. The average is barely 1 percent forthe year. The favorite
kinds appear to be leafhoppers, shield bugs, and stinkbugs. Black
olive scales were found in 11 stomachs, and a second species, not
identified, in 1.
Caterpillars are eaten sparingly in every month. The amount for
the year is 3.26 percent, and the maximum consumption, 8.5 percent,
occurs in March. Pupe of the codling moth were found in 2 stom-
achs. Grasshoppers and crickets amount to 2.5 percent for the year.
In July they aggregate nearly 16 percent, which is a remarkably
small amount for such a confirmed ground feeder as the towhee.
They are eaten rather irregularly from April to October inclusive,
with a trace in January. The remainder of the animal food, consist-
ing of a few flies and other insects, spiders, millipeds, and snails,
amounts to a little more than one-half of 1 percent.
The following insects were identified in the stomachs:
COLEOPTERA.
Bradycellus rupestris. Aphodius rubidus.
Philonthus albionicus. Diabrotica soror.
Tachyporus californicus. Blapstinus pulverulentus.
Hy pnoides ornatus. . Blapstinus rufipes.
Ptilinus ruficornis. Notoxus alamedx.
Aphodius rugifrons. Calandra oryza.
- HEMIPTERA.
Saissetia olex.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Carpocapsa pomonella.
Vegetable food.—Fruit was eaten in every month from April to
October inclusive, and also in December and January. The total for
the year is 4.4 percent of the food. The greatest quantity was taken
in June, when it amounted to 9.3 percent. Fruit, consisting of pulp
and skins without seeds, was contained in 24 stomachs, Rubus fruits
(blackberries or raspberries) in 28, cherries in 4, strawberries in 3,
and elderberries in 41. Thus the towhee does no great damage to
fruit—in fact, the fruit eaten is mostly wild or that which has been
injured and left on the ground.
Grain is eaten regularly in every month and in a fair quantity.
It amounts for the year to about 28 percent. The most is taken in
fall and winter, though the variation is not very marked. August
appears to be the month of greatest consumption, but it is doubtful
if this would hold true if more stomachs were examined, as October
SPARROW FAMILY, 91
is about the same. June shows a higher percentage than either May
or July, which indicates that some of the grain was gathered from
the harvest field. Oats were the favorite kind, found in 140 stom-
achs. Barley was contained in 34, wheat in 16, and cornin 6. Six-
teen stomachs were filled with grain alone, most of them with oats,
but several with barley and one with corn.
The towhee is another of those species whose standard food is weed
seed. It amounts to nearly 51 percent of the yearly diet. Even in
June, the month of least consumption, it amounts to one-fifth of the
food, while in December. it reaches its maximum, 83.6 percent; but
a good percentage is eaten in every month, no matter what other food
is at hand.
Weed seed was found in 304 stomachs, and 46 contained nothing
else. The quantity of this seed consumed by the towhees of Cali-
fornia in one year must be enormous. The following are the species
identified and the number of stomachs in which each was found:
Sunflower (Hehanthis-ep») 21s osnueuacnigaanceos ss vee vaaiseicaalomencens eae ge 1
Lesser tarweed (Hemizonia fasciculata)............220222 0020 c cece eee eee ee eee 7
Tarweed ( Madia sativa)..... 2.2.2.2. 22020 c ccc cee ne eee e eens 34
Mayweed (Anthemis cotula)..........200000002 0000 eee eee ee ee teens 6
Milk thistle (Stlybum marianum)..........-...00 02200 e eee cee cence eee ee 1
Bur thistle (Centaurea melitensis)..............0-0 2202002 e eee cee eee eee ee eee 39
Burweed (Amsinchia tesselata).......--..--.22 2022002222 eee eee eee eee eee eee 4
Nightshade (Solanum nigrum) .......-..2--2--020002 00 2c cece cece eee eee ee eeee 22
Plantain (Plantago lanceolata)..............2- 00000 c cece eee cece eee e eee eee eee 1
Lupines(LAl Pinus 6p) = 2 ice ncg kong vce aes laeadaeres eae 4 eae pa Cee RES 19
Clover (Trifolium ap) -.cciccak care seltadee dese eesteeewec emmeseeaemimaneeen 9
Legumes not further identified............-- eR a nn aie Pe Reerreel rere ene 39
Turkey mullein (Hremocarpos setigerus)........------2+ 022-00 e cece eee eee eee 5
Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba)..........2----++000e22220e sree eens ee 7
Alfilaria (Erodium cicutarium)........2--+202-02 002 c eee e eee eee eee eee 55
Geranium (Geranium dissectum).-....----++--0002-02 eee eee eee t eects 1
Yellow sorrel (Oxalis corniculata)........---.12--2222200e eee ee erect teers 4
Mustard (Brassica nigra).........-2---2222ece cece eee ce ee eee e eee tet t eee 10
Poppy (Eschscholtzia californica) .....--.-----2-- 000000 e cette ett tere eee eee 2
Miners’ lettuce (Montia perfoliata)........-.---+-002000e eee cece eee cece ie
Red maids (Calandrinia menziesi).......---------+- 0222 c cere eet e rete eee
Pigweed (Chenopodium album).....-.-----+2+--++0+0+22c ect t tees ttre terete es
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflecus).....---.-----2+222222 eee ret eee eee :
Spurry (Spergula arvensis)......2...-22222+00002 ee cece cee eee ects recente Fe
Chickweed (Stellaria media).......---2----+20+20e eee eee ee cess secrete teers L
Catchfly (Silene sp.).......-0ce0--0-20cee cece eee e cece cee ee eeeesserttertees ie
Knotweed (Polygonum sp.).....----+-2220e0eeeccc ect ecteteesesctertttetnes
Sorrel (Rumex acetosella) x oe 2 oescaeieeoe oe 2s hensennen dle ans 2Ee CERES :
Brome grass (Bromus sp.)...--------+22200eceec cess eeceeteescetectesssss se -
Wild oats (Avena fata) eves coxa gguiiovk yoo Reanlssccise Sees + Pea ‘
Canary seed (Phalaris canariensis).......-+.------++-000e cece cctr treet :
Panic grass (Panicum sp.).....--2+ee-e0e0eeeeeccee eee ececeett tesserae ce
MTOM occas «x xeregantepadacs vc vmsincenroite dard oabeneenan yet sn Hanne beenoett
Mast, in the shape of acorn meat, was taken to a slight SAaaeee "
reaches about one-half of 1 percent for the year. Vegetable rubbis
aggregates 2.4 percent.
92 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
Food of young.—Among the 399 stomachs already discussed were
those of 16 nestlings. They consisted of one brood of 3 about 2 days
old; 3 broods, 9 in all, about 10 days old; and one brood of 4, probably
2 weeks old. The three youngest ones had been fed entirely on animal
food, mostly grasshoppers, caterpillars, and spiders, with a few bugs.
The 9 next in age had been fed animal matter to an average extent
of 92 percent, to 8 percent of vegetable food. The animal food
differs in proportions, not in constituents, from that taken by the
adults. It is composed mainly of grasshoppers and caterpillars,
with a few beetles, bugs, and wasps. The vegetable matter contains
a little fruit, but the greater part is made up of wads or tangles of
vegetable fibers. In one stomach the tangle consisted of horsehair.
The same fact has been noted with the young of other species. The
four that were 2 weeks old had been fed 95 percent of animal food
and 5 percent of vegetable matter. The animal part is not so largely
composed of grasshoppers, caterpillars, and spiders as with the
younger birds, but beetles, wasps, and ants are more prominent.
All of them contained remains of the beetle Diabrotica soror to an
average extent of nearly 33 percent. Every one of these 4 stomachs
contained a tangle of vegetable fibers, which constituted the whole
of the vegetable food except one seed.
Some observations were made upon the feeding of nestlings of this
species. It was found that the young are not fed as often as those
of some other species, but probably get more at each feeding. The
parent visiting the nest to feed the young gives food to all of them
before leaving, and evidently regurgitates it from the gullet for this
purpose. As the result of watching two nests for several hours, the
maximum number of feedings in one hour was found to be 6, but!
from 2 to 4 was nearer the average. During the intervals between
the feedings the parents could be seen hopping about on the ground
and in the shrubbery searching for food, with which they appeared to
gorge themselves, for caterpillars and other insects could be seen
projecting from their bills. Both parents took part in the feeding,
though when the nestlings were very young one bird stayed near or
upon the nest until the other came, when they exchanged work.
SUMMARY.
The little animal food the California towhee eats is mostly of an
injurious character. While eminently a ground feeder, it does not
eat more of the predaceous ground beetles (Carabide) than other
birds less terrestrial in their habits, and no more than a due propor-
tion. In its vegetable food it probably does little, if any, damage.
The amount of fruit eaten is small, and is mostly either damaged or
wild. While it eats considerable grain, the great bulk is taken in the
fall and winter months. Probably it does not visit the harvest fields
much, for although a ground frequenter, it likes the presence of trees
SPARROW FAMILY. 93
and bushes. The service it performs in destroying the seeds of weeds
should be sufficient to cover a number of sins, but fortunately there
are none serious enough for consideration.
BLACK-HEADED GROSBEAK.
(Zamelodia melanocephala.)
During the six months from April to September inclusive, the
black-headed grosbeak occurs throughout the State of California,
excepting the arid deserts and boreal mountain summits. Like its
eastern relative, the rose-breasted grosbeak, it takes readily to
orchards and gardens, and is common in agricultural districts. It is
a bird of beautiful plumage and sweet song, and is a welcome addi-
tion to the attractions of rural life. It often nests in orchard trees,
and, as is perfectly natural, gets much of its food there. While this
consists mainly of harmful insects, a goodly part of it is fruit. The
grosbeak, as its name indicates, has a very powerful bill, and has no
difficulty in cutting the skin of the firmest fruit. It feeds upon cher-
ries, apricots, and similar fruits to a considerable extent, but on the
other hand it habitually consumes some of the worst insect pests,
such as the black olive scale, the 12-spotted diabrotica, and the
codling moth. The destruction of this trio alone should entitle the
bird to great consideration, but it eats also other destructive insects.
For the laboratory investigation of this bird’s food 225 stomachs
were accessible. They were collected in the six months from April
to September inclusive, a fair number in each, except the last, when
only 3 were obtained. These stomachs contained about 57 percent
of animal matter to 43 of vegetable. The animal matter is composed
of insects and spiders, with a few traces of vertebrates. Insects, such
as beetles, scales, and caterpillars, constituted nearly 53 of the 57
percent of animal food.
Animal food.—Of the animal food, beetles are the largest item.
They were found in 190 of the 225 stomachs. Of these, predatory
ground beetles (Carabide) were found in 16 stomachs, and ladybird
beetles (Coccinellide) in 2. To offset the destruction of these useful
insects, the 12-spotted diabrotica, which often does serious injury to
fruit trees, was found in 109 stomachs. Many weevils were found,
and great numbers of several species of leaf beetles (Chrysomelide).
To this family belongs the notorious Colorado potato beetle, which
at one time seemed likely to ruin the potato industry of the East.
The bird which attacked this pest constantly and systematically was
the rose-breasted grosbeak, a near relative of the one under considera-
tion. When the potato beetle finds its way into California, as even-
tually it undoubtedly will, the black-headed grosbeak is the bird most
likely to become its active enemy.
Hymenoptera in the form of bees and wasps with a few ants aggre-
gate less than 2 percent. A worker honeybee was found in one
94 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
stomach. Scale insects amount to 19.83 percent, or practically one-
fifth of the whole food. Most of these were the black olive scale
(Saissetia olex), but a few were the plum and prune scales (Lecanium
cornt and L. pruinosum). So persistently are scales eaten by this
bird that they were found in 142 of the 225 stomachs, or 63 percent
of all. While they did not entirely fill any stomach, in 26 they equaled
or exceeded 50 percent of the contents. Hemiptera other than scales
amount to a trifle over 1 percent.
Caterpillars, pupe, and a few moths aggregate 7.7 percent. They
were mostly eaten in April and May. Pupe or larvee of the codling
moth were found in 26 stomachs, one stomach containing the remains
of 29. Flies, grasshoppers, a few other insects, spiders, and miscel-
laneous creatures make up somewhat more than 1 percent. Egg-
shells were found in several stomachs and the bones of a small fish
in one. The animal food of the grosbeak, it will be observed, is
nearly all included in the 3 items, beetles, scales, and caterpillars.
The other substances appear to be eaten merely as makeshifts.
Following are the insects identified in the stomachs of the gros-
beak:
COLEOPTERA.
Platynus variolatus. Syneta albida.
Rhizobius ventralis. Gastrovdea cyanea.
Psyllobora taedata. Gastrovdea sp.
Megapenthes elegans. Lina scripta.
Buprestis fasciata. Diabrotica soror.
Podabrus sp. Diabrotica triviitata.
Telephorus consors.
Telephorus divisus.
Telephorus sp.
Aphodius rugifrons.
Aphodius sp.
Leptura militaris.
Blapstinus sp.
Deporaus glastinus.
Scythropus californicus.
Dorytomus hispidulus.
Baris sp.
Balaninus sp.
HEMIPTERA.
Saissetia olex. Lecanium corni.
Lecanium pruinosum.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Carpocapsa pomonella.
HYMENOPTERA.
Apis mellifera. ?
DIPTERA.
Borborus sp.
Vegetable food.—Cultivated fruit amounts to 23 percent of the
grosbeak’s food for the six months that it stays in the North. None
was found in the stomachs taken in April, but in all other months
there was a good percentage. Cherries appear to be the favorite
fruit, as they were contained in 42 stomachs. Figs were identified
in 24 stomachs, blackberries or raspberries in 23, strawberries in 2,
SPARROW FAMILY. 95
apricots in 1, and prunes in 1. Fruit pulp, not further identified,
but probably of the larger kinds, was found in 25 stomachs. During
cherry season these birds were almost constantly in the trees eating
cherries. They do not appear to attack apricots, peaches, and prunes
so extensively, but they feed freely on figs later in the season.
Blackberries and raspberries are taken whenever possible, but mostly
in July and August, after cherries are gone. There is no denying
the fact that the grosbeak eats much fruit, and of the best kinds.
Wild fruit amounts to something over 5 percent. All of it was
eaten in the four months from May to August inclusive, but princi-
pally in July and August. The only wild fruit identified was the
elderberry (Sambucus), which constitutes the bulk of this item, and
was found in 26 stomachs.
Seeds of various weeds and some grain constitute 14.7 percent of
the food. Oats were found in 9 stomachs and wheat in 7 , but the
amount was insignificant. The rest of the vegetable food consists
of the seeds of more or less troublesome weeds, of which the gros-
beak eats a very considerable quantity. The following is a list of
the species identified and the number of stomachs in which each
was found:
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum).........00000000ececueeeececeececeececsecees 5
Nightshade (Solanum nigrum)...-.... 00.2. 0000ccc cece cence cc ceeececcseeeeeees 1
Bur clover ( Medicago lanceolata)...........20000.00eeecceeeecceceeccccseeeceees 2
Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba)........ 000000200000 c eee ceeceeeeeeececeeeees 1
SUMAC (CRAUS! SD) 2 scci-te Serctcoearsiaie.w ls erocranentt aang eislalshin’s © oe aes mamemeumenin cee 1
Alfilaria (Erodium cieutarium)......200c0-0000ccc cee cece ence ccc e cece ceeee eee ees 12
Geranium (Geranium dissectum).......+200000-20ceeeeeecececeeeeceee ee eeeeeeees 13
Dwarf mallow (Malva rotundifolia).............. 00002200 c cece cece cece eee e eens 1
Red maids (Calandrinia menziesi)........20..0c20eeecee cece cee cece eee e eee e ee ees 6
Rough pigweed (Amaranthus retroflecus)..... 222222000000 eee cece eeeeeeeeeeees 3
Chickweed: (Stellaria: media cic cconneuvne wes am omeapeeee ene disae tewRe yg YERLE 13
Knotweed (Polygonum sp.).....-.---+-- Shenae sub bes eens Sein din see ele en :
Sorrel (Rumex acetosella)...... 22-2. .002202cccec cece cece cece eeee eee e cece teens
Ui ema tS Fc oay scents cea eacuinceintds NOE ad erate eat nse d ensue gas 24
Food of young.—Among these stomachs are those of 17 nestlings,
varying in.age from 2 to 8 days. The youngest brood, composed of
3, had been fed entirely on beetles, Hymenoptera, and caterpillars.
For convenience, codling moth pups may be separated from other
caterpillars. The average percentage of each was as follows:
Beetles 0.7, Hymenoptera 0.7, caterpillars 92.3, codling moth pup
6.3. Note the large percentage of soft food in the shape of cater-
pillars and pupx. Broods 2 and 3 were composed of 3 and 4 nestlings
respectively, and were probably about 1 day older than brood 1.
Their stomachs were entirely filled with animal food, divided as
follows: Beetles 15 percent, caterpillars 55.4 percent, codling moth
pupe 23 percent, scales 2.6 percent, and other insects and spiders 4
Percent. These nestlings had been fed with hard beetles to a much
96 BIRDS OF CALIFORNIA AFFECTING FRUIT INDUSTRY.
greater extent than brood 1, although only 1 day older. Brood 4
was composed of 4 nestlings about a week old. They had been fed
on animal matter to the extent of 96 percent to 4 percent of vegetable,
The animal food was divided as follows: Beetles 67.6 percent, Hyme-
noptera 3 percent, caterpillars 2 percent, scales 20.7 percent, and
eggshells 2.7 percent. The vegetable matter consisted of hulls of
seeds and rubbish. The increase in beetles and other hard food and
the decrease in caterpillars in the diet of this brood, as compared
with the younger ones, is very marked. Brood 5 contained 3 young,
estimated to be 8 days old. These had been fed entirely on animal
food, made up of the following elements: Beetles 82 percent, Hyme-
noptera 10 percent, scales 6.3 percent, larve 3.3 percent, insects’
eggs 1.7 percent, and spiders 2.7 percent. Another increase in the
hard elements of the food over the last is seen here, although the
difference in age is presumed to be only a day.
Observations were made upon the feeding of nestling grosbeaks,
but the results are not remarkable. A nest of 3 young, estimated to
be about 3 days old when first seen, was watched for one-hour periods
for several days. The number of feedings varied from 2 to 4 per
hour. In this respect the grosbeaks much resemble the California
towhee. Like that bird they evidently collect a lot of food and then
supply all the nestlings by regurgitation.
SUMMARY.
In summing up the economic status of the black-headed grosbeak,
the fact that it eats a considerable quantity of orchard fruit can not
be ignored. That this fruit is taken from the ripening crop on the
tree is also true. This, however, is the sum total of the grosbeak’s
sinning. It eats but few useful insects and practically no grain. To
offset its fruit eating, it eats habitually and freely the black olive
scale, the codling moth, and the 12-spotted diabrotica, three pests of
California fruit culture. Comparatively few complaints have been
made against this bird by orchardists, and its depredations are not
believed to be serious. Should it ever become so plentiful as to cause
serious loss, no attempts should be made to destroy the bird, but at-
tention should be directed to devices for protecting the fruit, thus
leaving the bird to continue its good work in the destruction of insects.
So active an enemy of insect pests as is this grosbeak can not well be
spared, especially in view of the possibility of an invasion of the
State by the Colorado potato beetle.*
@ For further information on the food of the grosbeak, see Bull. 32, Biological Sur-
vey, Food Iabits of Grosbeaks, by W. L. McAtee, 1908.
O
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
FARMERS’
BULLETIN
Wasnineton, D. C. 755 OctoBeR 26, 1916
Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED
STATES IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.
By F. E. L. Beau, W. L. McAres, and E. R. Katmpacy,
Assistant Biologists.
CONTENTS.
Page Page
LAI CUO. eae ae eee ies as Me birdittecoceyc eb eter cie sae ae 23
ROUSE WOM Oe ier i. oth Menten s nen SSeet 5y|\ Carolina chickadee.:j217...---.+++---cseece03 24
(Ciena Tah ee Tale Rutbedcbitin OUSGs er Meee eos acc oe 26
MUO STAR TG) ogee mete ons Se We ei 9 | “Purple martin. 0 een jo. ace = ee 28
ERO WENT GRMN na eee ese ce otect ces 11 | Scissor-tailed flycatche 29
Cardinal... ... Se cee aoe eae 13 | Red-cockaded woodpecker 31
CHRENY, TRO 07 2. a Lae Chuck=wills-widoweas see ccs - ccccse cco 32
eae DUGG. 2 oe keene ce cece ee eee TS SNichittisiwikts sean keke ae eee 33
WB IOMC TOW obs ne Sek ese oad 17 | Yellow-billed cuckoo...:....-...------------ 34
BIOTEC e- o355 ee IBEW SB Ob =whtten ss oan eke ae hei ih cos ome 36
ICRA OWIGRIORM ote ncecce cle ce eee ete e 19. | Swallow-tailed kite.......:......5.----ce2e005 37
Boat-tailed grackle...............-..--.----- Qoeemiriceyibuzcardenta stn ees cts Osco: ecmesans 37
INTRODUCTION.
By W. L. McATEE.
In the Southeastern States, as restricted for the purposes of this
bulletin (fig. 1), there occur at some season of the year more than
460 species of birds. Of these, about 280 are common, and the
number includes some of the handsomest birds of the United States,
as the scissor-tailed flycatcher, the painted bunting, and the cardinal;
besides some of the most pleasing songsters, as the last-named species,
the mockingbird, the brown thrasher, and the Carolina wren. The
general habits, and particularly the economic value, of 23 of the best-
known species are treated in the following pages.
The food habits of southeastern birds are of particular interest on
account of the prevalence in this section of the country of a number
of the worst insect enemies of agriculture, many of which are eagerly
1 For alist of department publications relating to the food of certain other birds inhabiting this same
area, see last page of this bulletin.
Norr.—The food habits and relation to agriculture of 23 species of birds common in the Southeastern
States are described; of general interest but especially applicable to the section covered.
§0402°—Bull. 755—16—1
2 FARMERS” BULLETIN 1755,
sought by birds. One need only recall such pests as the cotton boll
weevil, the bollworm, and the chinch bug to realize with what serious
foes the farmer of the Southeastern States has to contend. It is
hoped that knowledge of the part birds play in combating his enemies
will lead the southern farmer to take an active interest in securing full
protection for these, his feathered allies.
Cotton being the leading crop in the Southeast, the bird enemies of
cotton insect pests naturally deserve first consideration. Few in all this
broad land are igno-
rant of the tremen-
dous damage done by
the cotton boll weevil.
For some years it has
easily ranked as the
most destructive pest
in the United States.
Special study of its
bird enemies has been
made, and the result
is that 66 species are
B2141-92
Fie. 1.—Map of the United States, the shaded area showing the territory NOW known which, to
to which this bulletin applies. a greater or less ex-
tent, prey upon the boll weevil. A list of these, which constitutes a
roll of honor among southeastern birds, is here given:
Brirp ENEmMIgEs or THE Corron Bott WEEVIL.
Upland plover.
Killdeer.
Bob-white.
Red-headed woodpecker.
Flicker.
Nighthawk.
Chimney swift.
Scissor-tailed flycatcher.
Kingbird.
Crested flycatcher.
Phebe.
Olive-sided flycatcher.
Wood pewee.
Alder flycatcher.
Least: flycatcher.
Blue jay.
Cowbird,
Red-winged blackbird.
Meadowlark.
Western meadowlark.
Orchard oriole.
Baltimore oriole.
Bullock oriole.
Rusty blackbird.
Brewer blackbird.
Bronzed grackle.
Boat-tailed grackle.
English sparrow.
Vesper sparrow.
Savannah sparrow.
Lark sparrow.
White-throated sparrow.
Field sparrow.
Chipping sparrow.
Swamp sparrow.
Fox sparrow.
Towhee.
Cardinal,
Gray grosbeak.
Blue grosbeak.
Painted bunting.
Indigo bunting.
Dickcissel.
Purple martin.
Cliff swallow.
Barn swallow.
Tree swallow.
Bank swallow.
Rough-winged swallow.
Loggerhead shrike.
White-eyed vireo.
Yellow warbler.
Myrtle warbler.
Pine warbler.
Maryland yellow-throat.
Yellow-breasted chat.
American pipit.
Mockingbird.
Brown thrasher.
Carolina wren.
Bewick wren.
Winter wren.
Tufted titmouse.
Black-crested titmouse.
Carolina chickadee.
Bluebird.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 3
The most active of these enemies of the boll weevil are the orioles,
which actually take the insects from the squares of the cotton plant,
and the swallows, which feed upon the weevils when they are in flight
and seeking to extend their range. No fewer than 41 boll weevils
have been found in a single stomach of the Bullock oriole, and large
numbers of the weevils are habitually taken by all species of swallows.
Every one of a series of 35 eave swallows had eaten boll weevils, the
largest number in any stomach being 48, and the average 19. In
winter the most important destroyers of these insects are blackbirds,
meadowlarks, titlarks, and Carolina wrens.
Forty-one species ' of birds feed upon the cotton worm. Of these
bird enemies, cuckoos are most effective, since they frequently consuine
from 100 to 150 cotton worms at a meal. The orioles again deserve
especial mention, as do also the crow, the curve-billed thrasher, mock-
ingbird, cardinal, and gray grosbeak. The bollworm, or corn-ear
worm, is attacked by 12 southeastern birds, of which the boat-tailed
grackle, or jackdaw, has the best record. Seven species of birds feed
upon the cotton cutworm.
If insect pests are considered in the order of the importance of the
crops they attack, those damaging corn and other grain crops probably
are next to the cotton insects. White grubs are a serious pest not
only to corn but to strawberries, various garden crops, and grasses.
Fifty-seven species of southeastern birds devour white grubs or the
adult forms known as May beetles. The nighthawk, chuck-will’s-
widow, crow, and screech owl are the most voracious feeders on the
adults, and the crow, crow blackbird, and robin on the larve. Re-
mains of no fewer than 91 adults have been found in a single stomach
of the nighthawk, or bull-bat, a bird which has been much persecuted
but which deserves the strictest protection.
Wireworms are especially injurious to corn, but they damage all
other grains, as well as many garden crops. These pests are the
larvee of click beetles, of which there are many species. One hun-
dred and twenty-eight southeastern birds include click beetles or wire-
worms in their bill of fare. The most efficient destroyers of these
pests are the following: Downy and. red-bellied woodpeckers, night-
hawk, kingbird, great-crested flycatcher, crow, blue jay, crow
blackbird, red-winged blackbird, lark sparrow, tree swallow, purple
martin, house wren, and robin. From 20 to 40 wireworms have been
found in each of several robin stomachs. :
» Corn is seriously damaged by billbugs also. The larvee bore into
the stem and the adult weevils injure the leaves. Fifty-five species
of birds occurring in the Southeastern States feed upon these insects.
Those consuming the largest numbers are the killdeer, upland plover,
be understood as representing only
lists of bird enemies of the various
1 This and similar figures in the remainder of the introduction must
Present knowledge—other species may at any time be added to the
insect pests.
4 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755,
nighthawk, crow, red-headed woodpecker, and the yellow-headed
and crow blackbirds. Forty-three kinds of birds feed upon the army
worms, pests destructive to corn and all small grains. Eighty-eight
southeastern species devour cutworms, which are often the despair
of grain growers and gardeners. Largest numbers of cutworms have
been found in stomachs of the prairie chicken, bob-white, wood
duck, woodcock, sparrow hawk, yellow-billed cuckoo, nighthawk,
red-headed woodpecker, crow blackbird, meadowlark, English spar-
row, cardinal, and robin. :
No insect enemy of corn and wheat is more destructive than the
chinch bug; when it is numerous, fields are blasted as if by fire. It
is often said that the chinch bug has few natural enemies, but the
work of birds, 24 species of which feed upon chinch bugs, should not
be overlooked. Over 100 of these pests have been found in single
stomachs of the bob-white and meadowlark, and over 200 in one
of a brown thrasher. Other birds consuming chinch bugs in con-
siderable numbers are the flicker, the crow, the barn, tree, and cliff
swallows, and the house wren. The southern corn leaf beetle, a pest
that has come to be of considerable importance in the past few years,
is devoured by 22 kinds of birds. Those taking the largest numbers
are the mockingbird, the Bewick wren, and the house wren.
Among other corn insects may be mentioned the southern corn
rootworm (or spotted cucumber beetle), eaten by 26 species of south-
eastern birds; beetles of a group including the cane root borer and
the carrot beetle, devoured by 18 species; and the brown fruit-chafer,
by 21. The last-named beetle feeds also on apples, pears, and
peaches, as does a related insect known as the southern fig eater.
Fourteen species of birds prey upon the fig eater, the crow most
extensively.
The insect pests of clover and other forage crops in the South-
eastern States also are sought by many birds. Perhaps more dam-
age is done in the aggregate by leafhoppers than by other enemies
of these crops. Exactly 100 species of southeastern birds are now
known to feed on these small but exceedingly numerous insect pests.
Largest numbers of leafhoppers have been found in stomachs of the
nighthawk, chimney swift, barn swallow, and yellow-headed black-
bird. Clover is attacked by a number of insect pests, including the
imbricated-snout beetle and the various clover weevils. The first
named is eaten by 20 kinds of birds, of which the crow, crow black-
bird, and catbird seem most voracious. The common or large clover
leaf weevil is the prey of 25 species of birds. The nighthawk, crow,
red-headed woodpecker, purple martin, and crow blackbird have the
best records for destruction of adults, and the Savannah and vesper
sparrows of the larva. The smaller clover weevils are eaten by 74
species of southeastern birds. Largest numbers of these weevils
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 5
have been found in the stomachs of the robin, hermit thrush, tufted
titmouse, and white-crowned sparrow, and of the following four
species of birds, some representative of each of which had con-
sumed at one meal more than 50 individuals: Nighthawk, chimney
swift, tree swallow, and purple martin. ,
It is perhaps worth while to mention the bird predators upon cer-
tain insect enemies of truck crops. The destructive little cucumber
flea beetle and its congeners, which feed on potato, tomato, sweet
potato, eggplant, and tobacco, are preyed upon by 19 species
of southeastern birds. The sweet potato flea beetle and its allies
have 28 known bird enemies in this section; the grapevine leaf beetle,
21; the grape flea beetle, 23;.and the bean leaf beetle, 19. The rice
weevil has been found in stomachs of 20 species of birds, the notori-
ous Colorado potato beetle in 26, and the periodical cicada, or 17-
year locust, in 33. Pests of considerable importance in the South
whose bird enemies it is well to mention are the horseflies. These
are preyed upon by 49 species of southeastern birds. The stomach
of one killdeer contained 40 horsefly larve.
The foregoing demonstrates that many of the worst pests of south-
ern agriculture have enemies in the bird world. The insects which
have been considered chiefly are those destructive to grain and field
crops; but among forest insects, fruit insects, and all the host that
prey upon truck and garden crops, few can be mentioned that do not
have important bird enemies. Farmers should recognize their friends
and do all in their power to protect them.
HOUSE WREN.!
The house wren (fig. 2), a fussy, flighty, and fidgety little midget, irequents the
vicinity of barns and gardens and particularly old orchards where the trees are par-
tially decayed. Never for a moment at rest while there is a ray of daylight, it would
seem that his small body must soon be worn out by his incessant activity. His
Voice, as tireless as his wings, is heard from morning until night about the garden and
orchard where he seeks his daily food, and while not very melodious it is cheerful
and suggestive of life and activity. ; ;
“Probably no bird displays greater eccentricity in the selection of a nesting site than
the house wren. A hollow branch or a knothole in a post or stump are his more
prosaic choices. When more esthetically inclined he affects old boots or hats hung
up to scare the robin from the cherries, or takes an old copper pot or tomato can lying
on the roof of a back shed; or, if the gardener hangs his coat on the fence when warm
weather begins and forgets it for a few days, he may find when he returns sera
enterprising wren has preempted one of the pockets and has his domestic affairs es
full headway. The empty skull of a horse or cow when set on a post by the se
some schoolboy makes an excellent nesting place for the wren, who is never troub e
by the ghost of the former occupant. Whatever place he chooses, his ambition :
to occupy the whole of it. This he accomplishes by carrying in sticks, ee ie
other rubbish until all available space is filled, only just room enough being left for
the mother bird and her eggs.
1 Troglodytes aédon.
6 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755,
Curious as may be the nesting habits of this little creature, his chief interest to the
farmer and gardener centers about his tastes in the matter of food. He aspires to a
large family; six to a brood is his favorite number, and this he likes to duplicate once
or twice in the course of the summer; of course so many mouths to be filled require
great activity on the part of the head of the family, but the wren is fully equal to the
task and his brood never suffers from hunger. He is an industrious forager, search-
ing every tree, shrub, and vine for caterpillars and examining every post and rail
of the fence and every cranny in the wall for insects and spiders.
The wren is found all over the United States east of the Great Plainsin summer
and it winters in the Southern States.
For the purpose of this paper the food of 68 birds was examined and found to consist
entirely of animal matter (mostly insects). The largest four items, taken in the order
of their size, are bugs,
grasshoppers and their
allies, caterpillars, and
beetles. Beetles collec-
tively constitute 13.81
per cent of the food.
Of these, the predacious
ground beetles and a
number of “ladybugs”
(3.03 per cent) are prac-
tically the only useful
insects eaten by the
wren. Snout beetles,
or weevils(4.93 per cent),
are eatenin every month
of the wren’s stay in the
South. Other beetles
(5.85 per cent) are largely
of the leaf-beetle family,
to which belong some
B2142-67 Of the greatest pests in
the insect world.
Moths and caterpillars reach very nearly the same percentage as beetles. The
former are eaten to the extent of 13.9 per cent, but many are adult insects instead
of caterpillars. The wren seems to have a decided taste for these fuzzy creatures.
Grasshoppers and their kin—crickets, locusts, etc.—were represented in the food
of every month in goodly numbers, the aggregate being 17.61 per cent. The greatest
consumption occurred in January (31.2 per cent) and November (31 per cent); the
smallest, a mere trifle, in April. The largest item in the food is made up of bugs (29.34
per cent), chiefly stinkbugs, a few negro bugs, and some leafhoppers; but a good
many more are those slim-bodied, long-legged, slow-moving creatures that may be
found straddling over the herbage about pools or wet places and over bushes. The
thread-legged bugs and marsh treaders are examples. As these creatures have no great
economic significance, so far as known, the wren does neither good nor harm in eating
them, The stinkbugs, negro bugs, and tree-hoppers and leafhoppers are harmful
insects, and in eating them and feeding them to its young the wren is an aid to the
agriculturist.
Ants are eaten to the extent of 8.2 per cent of the yearly food, and in March con-
stitute 22.67 per cent. Bees and wasps amount to 3.27 percent. Flies, a mere trifle
in the food of the wren, are evidently left to the more fleet flycatchers and swallows.
Fic. 2.—House wren. Length, about 5 inches.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, id
Spiders are acceptable and are captured every month in the season. The wren finds
these when searching under piles of lumber or brush, stone walls, hollow logs, out-
houses, and sheds. They aggregate 10.51 per cent of the food, and in March 32.5 per
cent. Millepeds (thousand-legs) form a part (2.76 per cent) of the food of the first four
months of the year, six-sevenths of them being eaten in April. Other creatures,
as sowbugs and snails, were found in a few stomachs, but are a negligible quantity.
No accusation has been brought against the wren that it harms fruit or other farm
products. Both field observation and stomach examination show that it consumes
great numbers of noxious
insects, thereby benefiting FE
the farmer and gardener. A 2S= S
It is a cheery, bustling oa
little creature to have Zz - pe
about the homestead and
should be thoroughly pro-
tected. Put up a box
where cats can not get at
itand the wren will pay
. good rent.—F. E. L. B.
CAROLINA WREN.!
The Carolina wren (fig.
3) is resident from the
Gulf of Mexico north to
the southern boundaries of E=
Iowa, Illinois, and Con- . Fy WS .
necticut in the breeding ; SF SS
season, but in winter with- :
draws somewhat farther
south. Itisa bird of the
thicket and undergrowth,
preferring to place its nest
in holes and crannies but
when necessary will build
a bulky structure in a
tangle of twigs and vines.
Unlike the house wren it
Y
ZY i Upp SS
yf N SS
Z 7, ANN SS
does not ordinarily use
the structures of man for
‘the few American birds AW I i il
that sing throughout the Hien | i
} i
' try to, in the mating sea- I | / |
son, but the Carolina wren \
forth his melody of song Fic. 3.—Carolina wren. Length, about 5} inches.
every month. The writer’s
from a thicket a song which reminded him of June instead of midwinter. ;
This wren keeps up the reputation of the family as an insect eater, ag over nine-
nesting sites. It is one of
year. Most birds sing, or
may be heard pouring = SE
first introduction to this bird was in the month of January when he heard gushing
tenths of its diet consists of insects and their allies. In this investigation of its food
1 Thryothorus ludovicianus.
8 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
there were examined 291 stomachs, representing every month. Their contents were
made up of 94.18 per cent animal matter, nearly all insects, and 5.82 per cent vegetable,
chiefly seeds. A very marked uniformity in the diet is noticeable, the winter season
showing almost as great a consumption of insects as the summer.
Of the animal food, beetles amount to 13.64 per cent, all injurious except a few
useful predatory ground beetles (1.71 per cent); two-fifths of these were eaten in
December, presumably on account of scarcity of other insects. Many species of snout
beetles, or weevils, were identified (4.29 per cent), but the most interesting economi-
cally is the cotten boll weevil, 31 individuals of which were found in 18 stomachs.
Other beetles, like the 12-spotted cucumber beetle, the striped cucumber beetle, the
bean leaf beetle, and numerous so-called flea beetles, all more or less harmful, occur
in many stomachs and form 7.64 per cent of the total food.
Ants (4.63 per cent) were found in the stomachs collected every month except
September and in very uniform quantities. The greatest consumption was in July
(8.81 per cent). For each of the 11 months bees and wasps amount to about the
same as the ants. Bugs, with one exception, are the most important item in the
diet of the Carolina wren (18.91 per cent), and were eaten every month, with a good
percentage for each. The maximum (32.16 per cent) was taken in February. The
taajority of the insects eaten were of the larger species, as stinkbugs, or soldier bugs,
leaf-legged bugs, and leafhoppers. Four stomachs contained the chinch bug and in
one there were 5 individuals. Scale insects destructive to oranges were found in one
stomach.
Caterpillars and a few moths, the largest item in the food (21.73 per cent), were
eaten every month with a good percentage for each. The month of greatest consump-
tion is September, when they constitute more than one-third of the whole food (39 per
cent). No special pest was observed, but as the Carolina wren is a small bird the
caterpillars are usually so torn to pieces that the species can not be determined;
and the moths eaten were so fragile as to be unidentifiable after the process of digestion
had begun.
Grasshoppers and crickets, with a few other orthopterous insects, as cockroaches and
their eggs, constitute 12.57 per cent of food of the Carolina wren and form a fairly large
percentage of the food from July to the end of the year. The average consumption for
these months is 19.65 per cent, while that for the first six months is only 5.49 per cent.
As with many other birds the month of greatest consumption is August (26.9 per cent).
Flies do not appear very acceptable as food to the wren. None were eaten in
January, August, or September, and comparatively few in the other months. The
average for the year is a trifle over 3 per cent. The sort mostly taken are the so-called
“‘daddy longlegs,’’ or crane flies.
Spiders are apparently very attractive to wrens in general, particularly to the
Carolina wren, which probably finds them when investigating crannies of buildings,
piles of lumber, or heaps of brush, as is its habit when looking for nesting sites, or when
not pressed by other responsibilities. This wren eats spiders in every month, and in
the five months from April to August to the extent of 16.67 per cent for each, In
the remaining seven months spiders aggregate 6.16 per cent of the food, an unusual
percentage; the average for the year is 10.54 per cent. Most wrens eat spiders more
than do other birds, but the Carolina wren excels them all. Millepeds, or thousands
legs, are eaten sparingly throughout the year (2.06 per cent) and none were taken in
January, June, or September.
Animals other than insects, as sowbugs and snails, were found in a few stomachs,
but constitute only 0.16 per cent. Vertebrate animals would hardly be expected
to form part of the diet of so small a bird, but the Carolina wren eats them often.
Remains of lizards were found in 14 stomachs, tree frogsin 8, and a snake in 1; totaling
1.92 per cent.
The great bulk of the vegetable food of the Carolina wren consists of various kinds
of seeds, mostly of trees or shrubs. Of these, bayberry was found in 20 stomachs,
COMMON.BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 9
sweet gum in 10, poison ivy in 7, sumac in 4, pine in 2, smart weed and other weedsin
7, and mast (ground up acorn) in 2. Be
des these a few stomachs contained pulp
which could only be identified as “fruit.”
From this analysis of the food of the Carolina wren, it is evident that the farmer and
fruit grower have not the slightest cause for complaint against the bird, It eats neither
cultivated fruit nor grain, and does not even nest in an orchard tree; but it does
feed on numerous injurious
insects and enlivens the
tangled thickets with its
cheerful song for 12 months
in the year.—F, FL. B.
MOCKINGBIRD.}
The mockingbird (fig. 4)
has always been held in
such high esteem for its
vocal powers that any at-
tempt to add to its reputa-
tion by showing that its
food habits also are in its
favor may seem super-
fluous. The title of the
mockingbird to rank
among economic bene-
factors has not heretofore
been quite clear, however,
for, though it does consider-
able good in the destruc-
tion of harmful insects, it
is said to eat much fruit,
and where fruit raising is
an important industry, as
in the Southern States,
particularly Texas and
Florida, bitter complaints
are made against it. In
Florida, the bird is charged
with attacking grapes and
oranges, and in Texas it is
asserted that figs must be
added to the list of fruit it
damages,
For the present investi-
gation of the mockingbird’s
food 417 stomachs were
available, and these dis-
closed 47,81 per cent ani-
A =
aS
\ \
As
\Y LW NS
SS \
:
Nay
WY
¥
——
Wy
AN
if
|
\K
i
i \\
aE
i
i
ly
i | | | mn
if | eM :
NNN
!
B2144-66
Fic. 4.—Mockingbird. Length, about 103 inches.
mal matter to 52.19 per cent vegetable. This is more than twice the proportion of
animal food observed in mockingbirds from California. Perhaps the abundant fruit
in that section proves too great an attraction for the birds to bother with insects.
The stomachs of southeastern birds examined were very evenly distributed over
every month, Most of the animal food is taken in May (85.44 per cent). Vege-
table food attains its maximum in December and January (86.55 per cent each).
1 Mimus polyglottos.
50402°—Bull. 755—16——2
10 FARMERS” BULLETIN 755,
The important items in the animal diet are beetles, ants, bees, wasps, grasshoppers,
caterpillars, and a few each of several other groups. Useful beetles, mostly predacious
ground beetles (3.47 per cent), together with grasshoppers, show that the mockingbird
must gather a considerable portion of its food upon the ground. Harmful beetles
(7.38 per cent) are of sorts mostly found on leaves of trees, bushes, or plants which
are the natural habitat of the mocker. Many of these were weevils, and among them
were nine specimens of the cotton boll weevil, in six stomachs. About a dozen
stomachs contained remains of the 12-spotted cucumber beetle. Many other species
were identified which are nearly as harmful but not so well known.
Ants (4.46 per cent), found in 75 stomachs, again show that the mockingbird goes
to the ground for at least a portion of his food. Bees and wasps (3 per cent) are mostly
good flyers and must either be taken on the wing or picked from flowers, and it is in
the latter situation probably that the mockingbird gets them.
True bugs are eaten so seldom by this bird that the item would not be worth men-
tioning were it not that one stomach contained remains of that notorious wheat and
corn pest, the chinch bug. This insect has probably caused more loss to agriculture
than any other in the United States. Although the percentage in the food of the
mockingbird is insignificant, any bird that eats this pest deserves honorable mention.
Flies are apparently merely tasted and pronounced not good, for a trace of them is
all that stomachs show. Grasshoppers, on the contrary, appear to be the favorite
animal food. They are eaten every month and average 14.85 per cent for the year.
In July they rise to 43.33 per cent, but in February there is only a mere trace. All
the other months make a reasonable showing. Insects of this group captured include
true grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets, all harmful and some very much so, as, for
instance, the Rocky Mountain locust or grasshopper, which devastated the upper
Mississippi Valley a few decades ago.
Caterpillars (9.48 per cent) were found every month in the diet of the mockingbird
with a reasonable percentage in all except October. The most were taken in August
(23.89 per cent), though nearly as many were eaten in May. Among a host of others,
all more or less harmful, was the cotton leaf worm, found in 23 stomachs, and the cotton
bollworm, in 2 stomachs. This latter is not confined to the South, but preys upon
corn, tomatoes, and other crops all through the central and northern portions of the
country. A few insects other than those already discussed were found, but the per-
centage is insignificant. Spiders were eaten sparingly (less than 2 per cent) in every
month except October. A few millepeds, crawfish, sowbugs, and snails also were
eaten, but the most singular food consisted of three lizards and a small snake, found in
four stomachs.
The predominant vegetable food of the mockingbird is wild fruit. This is eaten
every month and totals 42.58 per cent for the year, or more than four-fifths of the vege-
table portion. The maximum consumption (76.91 per cent), occurs in October.
Wild fruit was found in 246 stomachs, and 76 contained nothing else. Thirty-five
species of fruit were identified, and it is probable that more were present but too far
digested to be recognized. Those most frequently eaten were the different species of
holly, smilax, woodbine, blackberry, pokeberry, elderberry, mulberry, and sour gum.
Domestic fruit (3.35 per cent), the great bulk of which was either raspberries or
blackberries, was found in stomachs collected from May to August. Both of these
berries grow wild in great abundance over most of the country and those eaten by the
mockingbird are as apt to be taken from thickets and briar patches as from gardens.
None of the larger fruits were certainly determined, but figs were found occasionally.
A few grapes were identified, but these may as well have been wild as domestic. The
mockingbird will probably do little harm to cultivated fruits so long as wild varieties
are accessible and abundant. The remaining vegetable food was of no great impor-
tance, being made up of various weed seeds, sumac seeds of several species—including
the poisonous (found in four stomachs)—petals of flowers, and rubbish. No grain of
any kind was found.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 11
There appears to be nothing to prove that the mockingbird eats domestic fruits to
an injurious extent. It has in general enjoyed about the same place in the affections
ofthe southern people that is held by the robin in the North, and judging by the results
of this investigation it well deserves the place.—r. BE. L. B.
,
BROWN THRASHER.'
Few birds excel the brown thrasher in sweetness of song, but itis so shy that its notes
are not heard often enough to be appreciated. Its favorite time for singing is in early
morning, when, perched on the top of some tall bush or low tree, it gives an exhibition
of vocal powers which would do credit to a mockingbird. Indeed where the latter
bird is abundant, the thrasher is sometimes known as the sandy mocker.
The brown thrasher (fig. 5) breeds throughout the United States east of the Great
Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It occasionally visits the
garden or orchard, but nests in swamps or in groves standing upon low ground, and
sometimes builds in a pile of brush at a distance from trees. On account of its more
retiring habits
it isnot so con- r
spicuous as the Zi
robin, though it
may he equally wy) i in
abundant. fy) ‘i Sa in
The food of the TTD) vax |)
thrasher consists dh Bue’),
of both fruit and
insects. An ex-
amination of
266 stomachs
showed 37.38 per
cent vegetable
and 62.62 per
cent animal
food, the latter
practically all
insects.
The most no- Fic. 5.—Brown thrasher. Length, about 11} inches.
ticeable pecu- ie
‘liarity in the food is that no one item is greatly in excess of others, while in the case of
the yellow-billed cuckoo, for instance, caterpillars constitute more than half the food.
With the thrasher the largest item is made up of beetles (18.14 per cent). A few of
these (4.82: per cent) are of useful species, mostly predacious ground beetles. ; Others
(13.32 per cent) are of a more or less harmful character, the great bulk being May
beetles and weevils, or snout beetles. Among the latter is the notorious cotton boll
weevil, found in six stomachs. May beetles, when in the grub stage, injure roots of
grass and other plants. The 12-spotted cucumber beetle, another destructive pest,
also was found in many stomachs. Beetles are eaten regularly throughout the year,
although a little more from March to June than in other months. ee
Ants form a surprisingly small percentage of the yearly food (1.38 per cent) when the
fact is considered that the thrasher gets most of its food upon the ground, where most
ants live. The small destruction of bees and wasps (0.93 per cent) is not ae
as the thrasher is hardly agile enough on the wing to catch such swift ee Ak
three insects, however, are very evenly distributed throughout the year, eac eae
showing a small percentage. Bugs, mostly stinkbugs with a few negro bugs, make up
B2146-66
1 Tozostoma rufum.
12 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755.
1.54 per cent and are very regularly distributed. One bird taken in Illinois had eaten
chinch bugs, but none were found in stomachs from farther south. Flies (1.76 per
cent) are evidently not a favorite food of the thrasher, and nearly all of those eaten
were taken in November. One stomach secured that month in a Mississippi cotton
field was filled with flies except 6 per cent of fruit of ‘‘French mulberries’’; the bird
had probably foynd a colony of flies hibernating in a crevice and had devoured the
whole lot.
Caterpillars (5.95 per cent) stand next to beetles in the thrasher’s food, and are
taken every month except November; that month, however, is represented by only
five stomachs. Grasshoppers and crickets would seem to be very available to the
thrasher, as the insects live on the ground, where also the birds get their food; but,
unlike the meadowlark, these birds do not esteem grasshopper diet enough to go out
in the sunshine to seek it. This food (2.43 per cent for the year) is taken to some
extent every month, the maximum (8.5 per cent) in September.
A few insects of other groups are picked up occasionally. In all they amount to
only one-fourth of 1 per cent. Spiders (0.58 per cent) are eaten now and then, and
myriapods (thousand-legs) to a somewhat greater extent (2.24 per cent), but very
irregularly, the maximum (8 per cent) in January. A few miscellaneous animals,
like crawfish, sowbugs, snails, and angle worms, make up 1.26 percent. Bones of
lizards, salamanders, and tree frogs (in all, 0.92 per cent) were found in 11 stomachs.
Of the insects eaten by the brown thrasher there is only one class to which excep-
tion can be taken—the predacious beetles. That these insects render some service
to man is beyond reasonable doubt, though some of them also do injury. Their de-
struction, then, is not an unmixed harm, but in any case the more numerous noxious
insects eaten by the thrasher more than compensate for the useful beetles incidentally
destroyed.
The vegetable food of this bird is nearly equally divided between fruit and a number
of other substances, of which mast is the most prominent. Wild fruit, the largest item
in the vegetable portion (19.94 per cent), was eaten every month in varying quanti-
ties, the month of maximum consumption (45.69 per cent) being September; January
and February, with dried-up fruit from the last summer’s crop, stand next. Alto-
gether about 30 species of wild fruits or berries were identified in the stomachs. Those
most eaten are blueberries, huckleberries, holly berries, elderberries, pokeberries,
hackberries, Virginia creeper, and sour gum. Some seeds not properly classified as
“fruit”? were found, as bayberry, sumac—including some of the poisonous species—
pine, and sweet gum.
Domestic fruit, or what was called such, was found in nine months, from April to
the end of the year, most of it (53.19 per cent) in July. Raspberries or blackberries,
currants, grapes, cherries, and strawberries were positively identified by their seeds,
but as all of these grow wild, it is probable that much that is conventionally termed
domestic fruit is really from uncultivated plants. The aggregate for the year is 12.42
per cent. Most unexpected in the thrasher’s diet was mast, principally acorns,
although some of it was so finely ground up that it was not peeable to tell its exact
nature. It is also somewhat a matter of doubt as to just where to draw a dividing
line between mast and seeds, so that the proportion of each is somewhat uncertain. In
the case in hand the total for the year is estimated at 23.72 per cent. Mast was eaten
every month except August, but mostly in fall and winter—November, the month
when acorns are abundant and fresh, showing the greatest quantity (57.4 per cent).
Grain (2.57 per cent) was found in the stomachs for six months, but in only February,
March, and May were there noteworthy percentages. March shows 12.37 per cent,
the other two slightly less. The grain was nearly all corn, with a little wheat, but from
the season in which it was taken most of it evidently was waste.
The farmer has nothing to fear from depredations on fruit or grain by the brown
thrasher. The bird is a resident of groves and swamps rather than of orchards and
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 13
gardens, so that it comes but little into contact with the products of husbandry, and
does not prey upon them extensively when it does. The useful insects that it eats
are amply paid for by its destruction of noxious ones.—F. E. L. B.
CARDINAL.!
Vivacity, beauty,’and vocal expertness are three outstanding traits of the cardinal,
or redbird (fig. 6). Whether the eye is held by the vivid color that suggested the
bird’s name, or by the
active, graceful move-
ments, the raising and
lowering of the crest,
which when fully erect
gives the bird an appear-
ance of such keen atten-
tion, or whether the ear
is.charmed by the rich
and varied song, the im-
pression produced is one
of extreme pleasure.
Though somewhat shy,
the cardinal does not en-
tirely avoid the vicinity a
of homes. However, it Sa
prefers more secluded re- &
sorts. Shrubbery is its -
chosen haunt, the more Sa
tangled the better. Here [SS
the nest is built and the
young reared, and here
they spend most of their
days. Higher trees are
usually sought only under
the inspiration of song.
Viewed from the eco-
nomic stand point the car-
dinal deserves favorable
comment, as it does for
its other high qualities.
Its food is composed of
about 29 per cent animal
matter and 71 per cent
vegetable. Among the
insects eaten are a few
that are beneficial, but at
most not more than 2 per
cent of the cardinal’s
food, probably less, con-
sists of useful insects, :
while twelve times as much is made up of injurious species. Caterpillars are greatly
relished, and among those discovered in the food were three pests of the cotton ea
namely, the cotton worm, the bollworm, and the cotton cutworm. N ae ; a :
last-named species were eaten by 31 cardinals from Texas cotton se i -
caterpillar pests eaten are the purslane sphinx, zebra caterpillar, and coding moth.
til
B2146-66
Fig. 6.—Cardinal. Length, about 84 inches.
1 Cardinalis cardinalis.
14 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
Grasshoppers, together with true bugs, form more than one-tenth of the total food.
These groups of insects comprise many injurious forms of which the cardinal takes due
toll. Especially commendable is the destruction of scale insects, of which several
different species were identified from the stomachs of 21 redbirds.
Beetles comprise more than a tenth of the whole diet. Among them, weevils are
predominant. The acorn weevils, clover weevils, and billbugs, all injurious forms,
are freely eaten, and the cotton boll weevil occasionally. Vine chafers of various spe-
cies, the southern fig eater, and rose chafers are among other injurious beetles destroyed.
Click beetles, cucumber beetles, strawberry root borers, plum and locust leaf beetles
also are devoured by the cardinal. The bird has a record for feeding on many of the
worst agricultural pests.
The vegetable food consists chiefly of weed seeds, but wild fruit and grain also are
eaten to some extent. The grain, however, is largely waste, asit is taken only in win-
ter. Wild fruit, or rather the seeds of wild fruit which usually are extracted and the
pulp rejected by the redbird, composes about one-fourth of the total subsistence.
Wild grape seeds are favorites, but those of dogwoods, blackberries, hackberries,
smilax, cherries, blueberries, elderberries, pokeberries, and juneberries, and the fruit
of prickly pear, sumac, holly, redhaw, passion flower, Mexican mulberry, and palmettos
also are eaten. Little, if any, attention is paid to cultivated fruits.
Most important among the items of vegetable food is weed seed. This forms more
than a third of the total food. Seeds of smartweeds and bindweeds rank first in prefer-
ence, and the seeds of the following troublesome weeds are freely eaten: Foxtail, bur,
cockspur, crab and yard grasses, dodder, dock, sow thistle, plantain, tumbleweed,
nail grass, lamb’s-quarters, chickweed, sticktight, partridge pea, and buttonweed.
The redbird occupies an important place among birds devouring weed seeds.— w. L. M.
GRAY GROSBEAK.!
The gray grosbeak, or parrot-bill, is about the same size as the cardinal, closely
resembles that bird in song and general demeanor, and has similar nesting habits.
Moreover, it frequents the same kind of country and is resident wherever found. In
appearance, however, it is quite dissimilar.
In strong contrast to the glowing hue of the cardinal the general color of both sexes
of the parrot-bill is light gray. The wings, tail, and long crest are suffused with dark
red and the wings are lined with rose. This color also surrounds the beak of the male
and extends over throat and breast in an irregular patch. The beak is yellowish and
is very curiously modified, being short, thick, strongly curved, and apparently of
great power.
The gray grosbeak comes into the lower half of Texas, not reaching, however, the
extreme eastern part of the State.
Seventy-four stomachs of gray grosbeaks from Texas have been examined, 59 col-
lected in August and 15 in September. Vegetable matter averages 71.19 per cent of
the contents and animal matter 28.81 per cent.
Grass seeds constitute an average of 53.09 per cent of the total food of the birds exam-
ined, or more than five-sevenths of the vegetable food alone. Most important among.
them are foxtail and bur grass, which together amount to 43.59 per cent of the food.
Since these grasses are among the most pernicious of weeds, the parrot-bill is more than
welcome to all their seeds it desires.
The seeds of other grasses eaten are important, furnishing 9.51 per cent of the bird’s
subsistence. Among these are witch and crab grasses, most species of which are weeds,
and yard or wire grass. Seeds of a spurge contribute 9.81 per cent of this grosbeak’s
fare, and other weeds, including bindweed, lamb’s-quarters, tumbleweed, sunflower,
carpetweed, nightshade, vervain, and. mallow compose 6.13 per cent.
1 Pyrrhulozia sinuata tcxana,
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 15
While the parrot-bill consumes a smaller proportion of animal matter than the cardi-
pal, it selects about the same things, the principal items being grasshoppers, cater-
pillars, and beetles. Neither parasitic hymenopterans nor predacious beetles were
found in the stomachs examined, ashowing much to the bird's credit. Only one useful
insect had been eaten, it belonging to a queer neuropteroid genus, the members
which are rare. They are predacious when adult, and when young are parasitic in the
egg sacs of spiders.
The remaining animal food is composed of injurious species, many of them important
pests. Beetles constitute 4.66 per cent of the food, weevils alone being 3.42. Of
greatest interest among the latter is the cotton boll weevil, the most serious agricultural
pest of recent years. While the gray grosbeak does not feed upon it regularly, never-
theless the habit of picking it up when occasion offers is highly commendable. Leaf
beetles, bronzy wood borers, and long-horned beetles, all of which are destructive to
forest and orchard trees, also were found in stomachs of this species
Beetles, as a whole, are exceeded in the food of this bird by caterpillars, the
latter constituting 10.32 per cent of thediet. One of the species identified—the cotton
worm—has long been known as a great pest throughout the Southern States, and in
certain years has caused a decrease in the crop of a quarter of a million bales, valued
at $25,000,000. Fourteen of the 74 gray grosbeaks examined consumed cotton worms,
which averaged 39.1 per cent of their food. As many as 18 caterpillars were found
inasingle stomach. Another caterpillar enemy of the same crop—the cotton cut-
worm—also is freely devoured.
As beetles are less esteemed than caterpillars by the gray grosbeak, so also are the
latter less liked than orthopterous insects. This group contributes 11.52 per cent
of the total food, and includes both long and short-horned locusts and their eggs,
7 or 8 grasshoppers sometimes being secured by asingle bird. True bugs, comprising
stinkbugs and their eggs, cicadas, leafhoppers, and lantern flies come to about 1.5
per cent. All these insects are injurious and the bird does a service by feeding upon
them.
One parrot-bill was bold enough to swallow a large hornet. A few ants also were
eaten, and these, together with spiders and snails, complete the list of animal food
taken. Although this grosheak is not conspicuously insectivorous, almost all the
insects it eats are injurious. .
The data at hand are insufficient to determine finally the exact economic status
of the bird, but it may be stated with confidence that the gray grosbeak is almost
entirely beneficial.—w. L. M.
PAINTED BUNTING.’
The male painted bunting (fig. 7) is one of the most brilliantly colored birds of the
United States. The upper part of the head and neck are shining purplish violet, the
middle of the back yellowish green, wings and tail purplish blue, and underparts and
rump vermilion. The female is dark green above and yellowish beneath.
This little jewel has not failed to attract popular attention and in consequence
has received a variety of common names. In Louisiana the French speaking people
have called it nonpareil (unequaled), and le pape (the pope). The last name has been
contracted to pop and varied as red pop. Spanish speaking citizens know the bird
as mariposa (butterfly), and in English the bird has variously been named painted
bunting or finch, paradise finch, Mexican canary, and Texas canary. :
The painted bunting is not only distinguished in appearance, but also is one of the
most pleasing songsters among the finches. It isa persistent vocalist, and this char-
acteristic, in addition to its beauty and activity, makes it a most desirable species
for the vicinity of homes. Fortunately the bird is not averse to proximity to man,
1 Passerina ciris.
16 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755.
and its preference for shrubbery further adapts it to living about dooryards and gardens,
The nest, though usually placed low, is well concealed, and the eggs number three
to five.
Few complaints have been lodged against the painted bunting on the score of its
food habits. It is said to eat rice at times, to peck into figs and grapes, and to bite off
the tips of pecan shoots. In no case that has come to notice, however, has it been
charged with doing serious damage. Certainly no such charge is supported by the
investigations of the Biological Survey, for no product of husbandry has thus far been
found in any of the stomachs, 80 of which have been examined, all collected in Texas
in July, August, and September. Averages for the July and August material only
are here presented. Animal matter composed 20.86 per cent of the contents of
these stomachs, and vege-
table matter 79.14 per cent.
Of the former, 2.48 per
cent was made up of
weevils, mostly cotton boll
weevils. Allinsects of this
group are destructive, but
none more so than the no-
torious cotton boll weevil,
and this species had been
eaten by 18 ot the 80 non-
pareils examined.
Another enemy of the
cotton crop attacked by
these brightly colored little
birds is the cotton worm.
This insect was preyed
upon to the extent of 3.14
per cent of the total food
of the 80 painted buntings
examined. Other insects
eaten include grasshoppers,
crickets, click beetles, leaf
beetles, caterpillars, true
bugs, and small hymen-
opterans. A few spiders
and one snail also were
taken.
The vegetable food is re-
markable in consisting very
largely of a single item—
the seeds of foxtail or pigeon
grass. This is one of the
worst weeds in the United
States. The 80 painted buntings made over two-thirds (precisely 67.03 per cent)
of their total food of its seeds. The seeds of other grasses composed 5.88 per cent of
the food, grasses alone thus furnishing over nine-tenths of the vegetable portion.
The other vegetable matter eaten consists largely of s2eds of such weeds as amaranth,
mallow, sorrel, and nail grass.
Tosumup, practically all of the vegetable food of the painted bunting is of weed seeds,
two-thirds of it baing the seeds of fox tail graas, one of the worst weed pests. The animal
food also is composed almost exclusively of injurious species, more than a fourth of it
consisting ot the two greatest pests of the cotton crop—the cotton worm and the boll
weevil.—w. u. M.
=
VA
KG
HN
B2147-56
Fig. 7.—Painted bunting. Length, about 54 inches.
‘
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 17
COMMON CROW.!
Though not possessing the proverbially bad reputation of its kin of the Northern
States, the crow (fig. 8) of the South is well known in a large part of the area of which
this bulletin treats. Throughout the coastal region east of Texas it is intimately
associated with its maritime relative, the fish crow,? and in winter these two have much
the same food habits.
The series of 108 stomachs available for examination, while too few to show accu-
rately the food habits of the crow over so large an area, has verified much of the infor-
mation gained from field observation. The food of the crow of the South is much like
that of its northern relative, such differences as are observed being due to the relative
abundance of certain food items in the two areas. The southern crow has many of the
virtues of the northern bird, and, so far as the evidence at hand shows, certain
corvine failings, as nest robbing and injuring sprouting corn, seem less pronounced.
Examination of stomachs revealed 31 per cent animal food and 69 per cent vegetable.
Insects comprised a little less than a fifth of the yearly sustenance, and were made up
of many of the common pests, as May beetles and their larve (white grubs), which
were eaten in
every month
save two; wee-
vils of several
kinds; grasshop-
pers (nearly 5
per cent); and
several species
of caterpillars.
Such beneficial
insects as preda-
cious ground
beetlesand bugs
and parasitic
hymenopterans
formed less than
2 per cent,
’ Crustaceans,
by far the
largest part of Fig. 8.—Crow. Length, about 194 inches.
which were :
crawfish, constituted an important food item (7.4 per cent). These creatures in some
sections of the South are the cause of considerable damage, especially to corn and cot-
ton. A few mollusks, amphibians, and fish (about 4 per cent) indicate the aquatic
feeding habits of these birds. Fragments of the shell of a hen’s egg found es
stomach supply the only evidence of that objectionable trait of which sera ern
crow is so frequently accused. No remains of wild birds or their eggs is ae :
In the vegetable food, corn and wild fruits stand out prominently. e ae
constituted about a fourth of the yearly subsistence, but a large portion was taken in
winter when it must have been secured from outstanding shocks or picked up as WRG
Such wild fruits as sour gum, poisonous and nonpoisonous sumacs, uaa hao
berries, greenbrier, and the like composed nearly a third of the food, and were s
prominent probably because of the great abundance of many of these plants through-
out the South. Grain, other than corn, and a little cultivated fruit also Be ieniee
Field observation has shown that certain other items not revealed ess ora: a
examination enter into the diet of the southern crow. Watermelons are Irequently
B2148-63
1 Corvus brachyrhynchos. 2 Corvus ossifragus.
50402°—Bull. 755—16 3
18 FARMERS” BULLETIN 155,
damaged, and small gardens have suffered losses in peas, strawberries, and peanuts,
Growers of pecans also have entered complaints against the crow. In many sections
the bird has been credited with being a most potent disseminator of live-stock diseases,
especially hog cholera. While he may be one of many distributors of these diseases,
ultimate remedies depend upon close attention to sanitation and quarantine rather
than the destruction of all possible carriers. Asa carrion eater, the crow renders the
farmer an important service, especially in the South.
In view of the fact that corn pulling may be largely prevented by the use of deter-
rents, as coal tar upon the seed; that loosely made corn shocks, left standing long aiter
the corn should have been properly stored, are a constant attraction for these birds;
that damage to poultry and their eggs may be largely obviated by the proper housing
of nesting fowls and the screening of chicks; and that much can be accomplished by
scarecrows and other frightening devices, it appears that the legislation regarding the
crow at present in force in the Southern States is satisfactory. Absolute protection ig
not afforded in any of these States. This allows the crow to be held in check when
doing damage, yet the absence of extensive campaigns of destruction permits it to
continue unmo-
lested, in large
ees measure, its good
* ip Toy work in the de
YY Yue Ue ayy) struction of insect
Z oO pests in spring and
summer.—B. R. K.
BLUE JAY.!
Zs ' In the Southern
ne Wy YY Ly Sol ie States the ee jay
‘Wi Vif Ppt \ Mi), (fig. 9), or jay-
We Le xy) Z ie bird” as heis more
lyf Ye Wy 7); PSG familiarly known, .
Coe UY. YL Fh Ny is a resident the
Re iy year round, and in
S Hee gs winter his num-
bers are swelled
Belge-s3 «by migrants.
Stomach exami-
nation shows that he possesses essentially the same food habits as his relatives in the
North, while such differences as do occur are somewhat in favor of the southern bird.
Complaints from agriculturists and sportsmen appear to be less frequent and severe
in this area, while bird lovers have had less to say regarding the jay’s habit of nest
robbing, though this may be in part due to the fact that the movement to foster small
insectivorous and game birds has not attracted so much attention here as in some
sections farther north.
Examination of 184 stomachs indicates that animal food forms 31.9 per cent and
vegetable 68.1 per cent of the total. Insects make up 26.5 per cent of the yearly
sustenance, an increase of about 4.5 per cent over the northern bird; this is the strongest
point in favor of the southern jay, especially since in this food are many of the most
destructive pests, foremost. among which are caterpillars and grasshoppers, in about
equal quantity, Common articles in the blue jay’s diet are scarabeid beetles, includ-
ing May beetles, euphorias, and other related species, all of which, in one stage or
another of their development, are highly destructive to vegetation. In May, when
the first of these are abundant, they comprise nearly three-tenths of the food. About
wood lots the jay renders particularly valuable service in his choice of insect food.
Fia. 9.—Blue jay. Length, about 11} inches.
_ UMtamaattta ardotata _
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 19
Important elements include both the flat-headed and round-headed wood borers, as
well as numerous weevils, those feeding on pine predominating. Beneficial insects,
including. predacious ground beetles and bugs, and parasitic hymenopterans comprise
about 9 per cent of the yearly food. The jay’s liking for snails, which furnish an
ample supply of animal matter at times when insects are scarce, appears to be akin to
the southern crow’s preference for crawfish. A few batrachians (toads and frogs),
lizards, and even fish help out when hunting is not at its best. Of the 184 stomachs
examined only one contained the egg of a small bird; shells of hen’s eggs occurred in
18 of these, but as the jay is given to rummaging about rubbish piles, the source of
some of this material may be thus explained.
A consideration of its vegetable food discloses evidence unfavorable to the southern
blue jay. Of cultivated fruit and corn he takes considerably less than the northern
bird, but on the latter food he lays heavy toll just at the time when the grain is in
the roasting ear and ripening. In fact, in August, corn closely associated with the
silk torn from the top of the ear was found in 11 of 15 stomachs, forming over 58 per
cent of the monthly food. This item was also well represented in stomachs collected
in July and September. But by far the most popular article of diet of the southern
4
}
B2160-65
Fig. 10.—Meadowlark. Length, about 10$ inches.
yearly food, and in January,
Complaints against the bird
lead him into trouble with
jay is mast, which composes nearly 46 per cent of the
when other food is scarce, runs as high as 84 per cent.
on this score are few as yet, but this liking for mast may
owers of cultivated nuts—pecans, for instance. ;
o While there may be possibilities of the southern jay becoming troublesome rr
at present he cannot be considered a serious menace to agriculture. His insectiv-
orous diet during spring and summer, which includes many Sige species,
more than compensates for the losses inflicted wpon cornfields later in the season,
or upon isolated orchards of cultivated nuts.—z. R. K.
MEADOWLARK."
land throughout the whole
Alike on eastern meadows,
e may be heard in spring
The meadowlark (fig. 10) is a familiar bird of grass
United States, though less abundant in the Southwest.
western prairies, and southern savannas, its clear pip
1 Sturnella magne.
20 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755,
announcing the return of the season of procreation and growth. For its home it
chooses level, slightly undulating land free from trees, and, if possible, with a
supply of water near at hand, for the meadowlark delights in a clear running brook
for drinking and bathing. Its nest is built on the ground among the dead herbage
of the last year’s growth, and is usually overarched to protect the eggs and the sitting
bird from the weather, and is often so completely buried from sight as to defy detection
by the most skillful searcher. The bird’s preference for unmown fields covered with
what farmers call ‘‘old for” has given rise to the name of ‘‘old-field lark,”” by which
it is known in many places.
The great bulk of the species is migratory from the Northern States, but from the
latitude of Pennsylvania southward the bird is found throughout the winter, its num-
bers somewhat increasing farther south.
As arule, farmers have made little complaint of this bird, but a Georgia farmer says
that meadowlarks and crows do much harm to his corn and oats when first planted;
that they seem to pull up the sprouting seed for the fun of it, as they do not eat
half what they pull up; and that the meadowlarks are much more destructive than
the crows. A Tennessee farmer reports that the meadowlarks eat clover seed (pre-
sumably newly sown) to an injurious extent. As these are the only complaints of
any consequence against this bird, among thousands relating to damage done by
others, it would appear that the habits of the meadowlark do not seriously conflict
with the interests of the farmer. This supposition is fully substantiated by the
results of examination of the bird’s food, and it is still further shown that, so far from
being injurious, the meadowlark is one of the most useful allies of agriculture, stand-
ing almost without a peer as a destroyer of noxious insects.
In the laboratory investigation 890 stomachs were examined, representing all the —
southeastern States, and every month of the year. Analysis of the contents showed
animal food, chiefly insects, 78.12 per cent, and vegetable, 21.88 per cent.
As illustrating this bird’s vigilance in its search for insects, an instructive lesson
may be drawn from the food of a group of six birds taken when the ground was cov-
ered with snow. The stomach having the least insect food contained 8 per cent; that
with the most had 95 per cent; and the average for the six was over 47 per cent, or
nearly half the total food. The insects consisted of beetles of several species, true
bugs, grasshoppers, crickets, a few wasps, caterpillars, spiders, and myriapods. It
thus seems evident that insects are essential to the diet of this bird and that great
efforts are made to obtain them even under very adverse circumstances.
Of the insect food of the 890 birds, by far the most important elements were grass-
hoppers, long-horned or green grasshoppers, and crickets (27 per cent). In January
they form more than 9 per cent of the total food, and increase rapidly until October,
when they reach the surprising total of 56 per cent. During the succeeding months
they decrease slowly, and in November still constitute 40 per cent. It is extremely
doubtful if any other bird will be able to show a better record for the destruction of
grasshoppers. One stomach examined contained 37 individuals; but it should be
borne in mind that the birds that form the subject of this paper were not collected
from any region specially infested, but were gathered from all parts of the Southern
States, and of the whole number, 466 contained grasshoppers.
Beetles of many species stand next to crickets and grasshoppers in importance, and
constitute nearly 18 per cent of the annual food. One of the most harmful of these
is the family of the May beetles or leaf chafers, the average consumption of which
amounts to about 9 per cent for the year, and the greatest, 28 per cent, in May.
Most of these are dung beetles, but remains of the well-known May beetles were
found. Snout beetles, or weevils, form a small but very constant element of the food
(about 4 per cent). Beetles belonging to about a dozen other families collectively
constitute about 3 per cent of the whole food. Of importance in considering the diet
ee
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 21
of every bird is the extent to which it eats predacious ground beetles. From its
habits the meadowlark might be expected to feed largely upon these beetles, as they
live upon the ground for the most part and are very abundant. Examination shows
that these insects constitute somewhat more than 11 per cent of the food of the year.
When it is considered how exclusively the meadowlark feeds upon the ground, this
is certainly a very moderate exhibit and would seem to indicate that the bird does
not especially seek for these beetles but simply eats such as fall in its way.
True bugs are eaten with fair regularity by this bird throughout the year, averaging
3 per cent of the food of the season. The greater number are of the family of stink-
bugs, some of whose members are familiar (by taste) to many who have eaten
raspberries from the vines; these will wonder at the taste of a bird that can habitually
eat such highly seasoned food. Three specimens of the notorious chinch bug were
found, and it is gratifying to know that the meadowlark will eat this insect which
has done millions of dollars damage in this country.
Caterpillars, or the larvee of butterflies and moths, form a very considerable portion
(nearly 18 per cent) of the food of the meadowlark, but, as with most other birds, the
adults are rarely eaten, only 3 small moths having been found in as many of the 890
stomachs. Caterpillars were found in every month, and even the stomachs taken
in December show over 2 per cent. The maximum (28 per cent) is attained in May.
Spiders and myriapods (thousand-legs) are eaten freely, and aggregate nearly 3 per
cent of the food. Other insects eaten include flies, found in a few stomachs; a
dragonfly in one; an earwig in one; and a common cattle tick in one. Snails or
fragments of their shells were found in seven stomachs, sowbugs in two, a small
crustacean in one, and the bones of small frogs or toads in three. These last were
from stomachs taken in Florida and do not seem to be a favorite food.
The vegetable food of the meadowlark comprises 21.88 per cent of the total, and
may be roughly divided into fruit, grain, and weed seed. Fruit is mostly of wild
species and amounts to less than 2 per cent. Grain of three kinds—corn (the
favorite), wheat, and oats—constitutes a little less than 9 per cent, and was mostly
taken in winter, showing conclusively that it was waste. No sprouting grain was
found. Weed seeds, chiefly ragweed, barngrass, smartweed, sorrel, mustard,
amaranth, and gromwell (about 7 per cent), like the grain, were mostly eaten in
winter. In the analysis of the stomach contents clover seed was especially looked
for, as the meadowlark has been accused of eating this to an injurious extent, but it
was found in only six stomachs and only a few seeds in each—some with only one.
Stomach analysis does not indicate that grain is preferred to other seeds. The quan-
tity of each taken is practically the same and in such a grain-raising country as this
it can not be urged that this food is less easily obtained than the seeds of weeds.
When meadowlarks collect in flocks, as they sometimes do, they may do some dam-
age to grain, but at the time of the harvest of wheat and oats they are not thus con-
gregated, and the stomach records show that at that season practically none of these
grains were found, it being the time when insects were most abundant and consti-
tuted nearly the whole food. : ;
Unfortunately for the meadowlark, its body is
and as it is easily killed the temptation is too grea Re
is rhost emphatically a case of ‘‘killing the goose that lays the golden eggs. e
small portion of food that the creature’s body yields is as nothing ace with
the good the bird does when alive. The tendency to treat the meadow. . = :
game bird is far too general, and every farmer on whose land it is a 8 . :
rigidly protect it and allow it to preed. undisturbed. When its numbers an! ae a
increased as to render it dangerous to crops will be goon enough to begin he
thinning-out process, but that day is still far distant in most parts of the country.
F.E.L. B.
plump and its flesh well flavored,
t for some persons to resist. But it
22 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 155,
BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE.} .
The boat-tailed grackle (fig. 11), the largest of the blackbirds in the United States,
inhabits the South Atlantic and Gulf States from Virginia to Texas but is not found
at any great distance from the coast. Little has been written concerning its food
habits, but Audubon, whose account is apparently the best, says:
The food of this species consists principally of those small crabs called ‘‘fiddlers,’?
of which millions are found along the margins of the rivers and mud flats, as well as
of large insects of all kinds,
ground-worms, and seeds,
especially grains, * * * In
autumn, while the rice is
yetin the stack, they com-
mit considerable mischief
by feeding on the grain,
although not so much as
when it is ina juicy state, .
when the planters are
obliged to employ persons
to chase them from the
fields.”
In the investigations
made by the Biological
Survey there have been
examined 247 stomachs
from Florida, Alabama,
Mississippi, Georgia, and
Texas, representing every
month in the year. The
food consists of 47.45 per
cent animal matte and
52.55 per cent vegetable.
The former is made up of
insects and crustaceans,
with a few lizards, toads,
frogs, small mammals, etc.
Crustaceans make up more
than a third of the animal
food (16.81 per cent of the
total) and consist of craw-
fish, crabs, and shrimps, a
true seashore diet. Noin-
sects appear to bespecially
sought. Predacious beetles
(3.23 per cent) are taken
mostly in fall, and other
beetles are found to some
J extent, but no family is
; B216I-55 conspicuous. Grasshop-
¥ iq. 11.—Boat-tailed grackle. Length, about 16 inches. pers are eaten in July and
August (34.47 and 30 per
cent, respectively) but very few in any other month, The average for the year is
7.76 per cent, Six birds taken in Texas in September are worthy of special mention
from the fact that they had all eaten cotton bollworms in quantities varying from 26
to 93 per cent of the food. A few other insects and remains of small vertebrates
are frequently found in the stomachs, but do not form important elements,
1 Megaquiscalus major.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 23
Grain (35.65 per cent), all but a mere trace of which is corn, composes part of the
food of every month except May—the only stomachs collected in this month came
from a rice field near Savannah, Ga. In each month except May and November corn
constitutes more than half the vegetable food. October shows the greatest quantity
(71 per cent of the total food), but as only five stomachs were taken in this month this
result can hardly be regarded as a fair average. The pulp of some large seed or nut,
not otherwise identified, was next in importance to corn. Remains of figs in several
stomachs and wild grapes in one, indicate that fruit is eaten, though sparingly. No
weed seeds were found.
It is thus evident that no very salient points in favor of the boat-tailed gracklo
have come to light. In its insect food it has no very pronounced preferences, and
while it does not cause great havoc among useful insects, it does not prey exten-
sively upon harmful ones. In common with most other land birds, it eats grasshoppers
freely in July and August, and shows a taste for caterpillars as well. The animal food
it decidedly prefers is small maritime crustaceans, and these, so far as the interests of
agriculture are concerned, are entirely neutral. In its vegetable diet, the bird cer-
tainly does not commend itself to the agriculturist. Its preference for corn is very
marked and shows no variation with the change of season. That it visits the erowing
crop for its supplies is
evident from the fact that
much of the corn found
in the stomachs during
early summer is “in the
milk.’’ In any locality,
therefore, where this
grackle is very abundant
itmust almost necessarily
be harmful to the corn
crop without rendering
any well-defined service
in return.—F, E. L. B.
BLUEBIRD.
Typical of all that is
‘pleasing in bird life gen-
erally, the bluebird (fig.
12)is especially cherished
A)
SAAN
Ny
Me
wil
wherever it isfound, and
on esthetic grounds alone
iscarefully protected. It
: B2162-73
Fig. 12.—Bluebird. Length, about 7 inches.
ranges in the breeding season throughout the United States east of the Rocky
Mountains, and remains in winter as far north as
the southern parts of Illinois and
Pennsylvania. It is one of the most domestic of our wild feathered friends and
readily takes possession of the box erected for its accommodation wh
from cats and other prowlers,
original homes, however, were in such places as deserte
in old stumps. These birds are usually abundant wherever
are maintained by the rearing of two and frequently three
four to six young in each. The food
ere it can be safe
or utilizes crannies of farm buildings for its nest; its
d woodpecker-holes or cavities
found and their numbers
broods a year, with from
supply for such large families may well concern
the farmer, and he will be interested to learn what these birds relish most.
For studying the food of the b a
were available, and the contents, 58.51 per cent animal
table, well demonstrate that the bird is as deservin;
luebird 244 stomachs from the Southeastern States
food and 41.49 per cent vege-
g of protection on economic
grounds as it is for esthetic reasons. —
1 Sialia sialis.
24: FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
In the animal food the largest portion is made up of orthopterous insects (grase-
hoppers, crickets, and katydids), totaling 20.53 per cent for the year. Most insecta
of this group are harmful and at times very destructive. Second in importance in the
diet are beetles (18.79 per cent), made up in part of useful ground beetles (10.38 per
cent of the total food), but in this item also are May beetles (3.9 per cent), weevils, or
snout beetles (1.13 per cent), and miscellaneous related forms (3.38 per cent). The
useful beetles are sometimes eaten in such numbers as to detract from the esteem in
which the bluebird is held, the month of May, for instance, charging them against
the bird to the extent of 36.61 per cent of the food, and every month recording them
in euch quantities as to indicate that they are very palatable to the bluebird. Few
birds exceed this record of destruction of useful beetles, but it must be remembered
that for the year they form only about one-tenth of the food, and that the remaining
food shows that insects as a whole are attacked so impartially that the balance of
nature is not disturbed, and while one kind of insect life is not exterminated another
is not allowed to become superabundant; grasshoppers, for instance, enter the food
of the bluebird about in proportion to their abundance.
The group third in order of importance in the animal food contains the many forms
of caterpillars, including a few moths (9.59 per cent). Chief among these are the
owlet moths, the larve of which are the well-known cutworms, but there are also
included hairy caterpillars and the ‘‘yellow bear.’’ The rest of the animal food is
made up of flying insects, as wasps, bees, and flies, in small quantities, for the bird is
not very active on the wing; of ants and bugs, among which latter stinkbugs pre-
dominate; remains of chinch bugs, detected in one stomach; a few spiders (2.47 per
cent); still fewer myriapods, or thousand-legs (1.23 per cent); a mere trace of sowbugs
and snails; and a few bones of lizards and tree frogs.
The vegetable food consists largely of fruit obtained from pastures, swamps, and
hedgerows, rather than from gardens and orchards. Practically all the domestic fruit
taken was secured in June and November, and the only cultivated species identified
were cherries and raspberries or blackberries. In December, wild fruit forms two-
thirds of the monthly food, but this item decreases gradually each month, and in May
no fruit of any kind is taken. The yearly average is about a third of the total food.
As fruit is taken chiefly in winter, it follows that it is eaten to tide the bird over until
insects are again abundant, partly taking the place of seeds in the winter diet of birds
in general, though seeds, too, are occasionally and sparingly eaten by the bluebird.
Among them are seeds of sumac of both harmless and poisonous kinds, bayberry, and
a little indeterminate vegetable refuse and rubbish, together averaging 7.21 per cent
of the yearly food.
The bluebird has never been accused, in the writer’s knowledge, of objectionable
habits, and cultivated crops are not only safe from its attacks, but are benefited by its
ridding them of an overabundance of harmful insects. In spring and early summer,
when berries and small fruits are at their best, the bird subsists upon insects to the
extent of five-sixths of its food. Its fruit-eating period is from late fall to early spring,
when insects are scarce and waste fruit available. The point that has been urged
against the bird, its destruction of predacious beetles, is a harmful trait more apparent
than real, inasmuch as its record on all other lines is absolutely in its favor. Field
observation and laboratory analysis of the food fully justify the high esteem in which
the bird is held, and there is not the slightest excuse for persecuting it or withdrawing
from it the smallest degree of protection.—r. EB. L. B.
CAROLINA CHICKADEE.!
The Carolina chickadee (fig. 13) ranges through the southern portion of the United
States from the Atlantic to the Rockies and north to the Ohio River and to some extent
beyond. Its nest is built in hollow trees or posts, or in boxes set up for its special
1 Domthastoa anenlimomote.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 25
accommodation. A bird of forests and groves, it is not found on treeless areas, and does
not often alight upon the ground. From this it follows that its food is mostly of the
kind that can be taken on trees or bushes, and, therefore, excludes such ground-inhab-
iting insects as ants and grasshoppers.
The study of the food habits of the Carolina chickadee is based upon an examination
of the contents of 210 stomachs collected in the Southeastern States. The food con-
sisted of 71.94 per cent animal matter and 28.06 per cent vegetable, the former beirg
made up of insects and
spiders with a few sowbugs,
found in one stomach, and
the latter of berries and
several kinds of seeds.
Beetles, being rather ter-
restrialin habit, escape the = hing
chickadees to some extent, |:
forming only 3.67 per cent [SX
of their food. Nearly half SS y
of these were snout beetles, i 7
: x S=
or weevils, of which prac- |S
tically all species are more IS =
or less harmful and many Ss SS
=
are pests. The predacious SS
ground beetles apparently LSs
7
elude these birds complete- KY=>
ly, for not a trace of one
was found in any of the 210
stomachs.
A few ants were taken in
the months from February
to June, except May, but
the average for the year is
7
D
only 0.36 per cent. Bees 4A SOW,
and wasps (4.48 per cent of 4
/|
the food of the year) were
taken oftener and more
regularly. The month of
greatest consumption was
February, which would ap-
pear to be rather early for
bees and wasps to be out
extensively, and March
stands next.
Bugsseem to be a favorite
food in the four months from
April to July, during which
the great bulk is eaten.
The average for these
months is 15.13 per cent,
but for the whole year it is only 5.68 per c
SSS
=
B2163-70
Fic. 13.—Carolina chickadee. Length, about 4} inches.
ent, as bugs were eaten in only three of the
other eight months and then but sparingly. This item of food is made up of eer
bugs, shield bugs, leafhoppers, tree-hoppers, plant lice, and scales. While no cs
pest was noted, nearly all of these are harmful and especially the last two, of whic
there are hundreds of species and nearly every plant has its own peculiar form. a
The real food of the Carolina chickadee consists of moths and caterpillars. Moths
were found in only 1 stomach, their pupx in 16, their eggs in 20, and their larvee
26 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 155,
(caterpillars) in 138, or about two-thirds of those examined. The month of greatest
consumption is October, when they amount to more than three-fourths of the food
(78.1 per cent). The morith of least consumption is December, when they still aggre-
gate more than a tenth of the yearly food (11.74 per cent). The average for tie year
(44.42 per cent) is exceeded by cuckoos, but by few if any other birds. Chickadees
have a habit of beating their prey to pieces on a branch of a tree before swallowing it,
so that the stomachs contain only fragments not easy to identily. It is probable that
in these were many notorious pests, for the pupz of codling moths were recognized in
five stomachs and the eggs that produce one of the tent caterpillars in two.
Like many other tree-inhabiting species, the Carolina chickadee eats very few
grasshoppers, but some were taken irregularly through the year (1.04 per cent). In
five months, including August, the grasshopper month, none were eaten at all, and but
few at other times. So faras stomach records show no genuine grasshoppers were eaten,
but only some of their allies in their lowest or first stage, viz, the egg. In 11 stomachs
were found the eggs of katydids; in 5 the egg cases of cockroaches: in la grasshopper’ 8
egg; and in another a cricket’s jaw.
Flies are practically ignored. What were probably the eggs of a crane fly were found
in one stomach, but no adult flies were noted.
Spiders seem very palatable to the chickadee, being eaten every month and showing
a higher percentage (10.9 per cent) in the stomachs than any other animal food except
caterpillars. In five stomachs collected in March they amount to 44.6 per cent, but a
greater number of stomachs would probably modify this record. One stomach was
practically filled with the remains of sowbugs. These appear to be the only animal
food eaten that can not be obtained from a tree, shrub, or weed, and it is not clear
how the chickadee could get them, for sowbugs are essentially terrestrial in habit and
are usually found under a stone, clod, or mass of practically decayed vegetation. A
few bones and other tissues of a small unidentified vertebrate taken in June complete
the animal food.
The vegetable food of the Carolina chickadee consists chiefly of fruit and seeds.
Blackberries or raspberries, found in two stomachs; blueberries, in one; and fruit
pulp not further identified, in five, constitute 2.17 per cent of the food for the year.
Seeds of poison ivy (10.07 per cent for the year) appear to be a favorite food in the colder
months, but only the waxy coating is eaten. This is taken off and swallowed and the
real seed rejected, so that the bird does not aid in the distribution of this noxious plant
as do so many birds that swallow the seeds and afterwards either disgorge them or pass
them through the alimentary canal to fall and germinate in a different locality.
Other seeds, most of them so broken and ground up as to be unidentifiable, were
eaten to the extent of 12.38 per cent, chiefly in the colder months. In nine stomachs
taken during this season were pieces of liverwort, a plant of the lower order that grows
upon the bark of trees or damp rocks. This seems a very curious food for a bird, and
is probably taken when other supplies are scarce.
In a résumé of the food of the Carolina chickadee, one is impressed with the fact
that a large proportion consists of the eggs, pup, and larvee of noxious insects. As
aa cnemy of caterpillars the bird has few peers. It also destroys a great many of
those two pests of horticulture, plant lice and scales.—F. E. L. B.
TUFTED TITMOUSE.!
The tufted titmouse inhabits the whole of eastern United States from the Gulf to
southern Iowa and northern New Jersey. It is contented with various kinds of sur-
roundings and will nest as readily in a box erected in the dooryard or garden as in the
midst of the deep forest. Its preferred nesting site is an old woodpecker-hole or an
unoccupied box put up for a wren, and it usually remains in the vicinity of its nest
1 Bzxolophus bicolor.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 27
during the year. It is a rather noisy bird and keeps up its monotonous cry with
tiresome iteration. In winter small flocks assemble, probably family groups, and
ceaselessly wander about the forest in search of food, scrambling about the trunks and
larger branches of trees for hidden insects and their eggs. At such times, they are
very tame and pay little attention to human intruders. At the approach of spring
they separate into pairs.
For investigating the food of the tufted tit 186 stomachs were examined. These
were too few and too irregularly distributed through the year to afford more than an
approximation of the bird’s economic worth. The food consisted of 66.57 per cent
animal matter to 33.43 per cent vegetable. Contrasted with the food of the brown
thrasher, in which no one article predominates, that of the tufted tit includes one
item, caterpillars, which forms more than half the animal food, and two items, cater-
pillars and wasps, which are more than half the whole food.
Beetles make up 7.06 per cent of the subsistence, and of these only one-tenth of 1
per cent are useful species. More than two-thirds of the beetles (4.94 per cent) are
snout beetles, or weevils. Among these the cotton boll weevil was found in four stom-
achs. The remainder (2.02 per cent) are of various families, all harmful.
Ants are eaten by this tit occasionally, but in the light of present evidence can not
be considered a standard article of diet. Other hymenopterous food, i. e., bees,
wasps, and sawfly larve, is eaten much more extensively (12.5 per cent), and as the
sawfly larvee predominate, the winged forms are not in the majority among the hymen-
opterans. The tufted tit, like the cuckoo in this respect, takes many sawfly larvee
_when searching for caterpillars.
Bugs, principally stinkbugs, tree-hoppers, and scales, or bark lice, are eaten to a
moderate extent (4.03 per cent) in seven of the twelve months. Their absence from
September to January, inclusive, would probably disappear with a greater collection of
stomachs. Scales were the most numerous of the bugs, and in two stomachs specimens
of the European fruit scale were identified. In one stomach, and this taken in
January, were found the remains of a single fly; from this record it may safely be
asserted that flies are not a favorite food of this bird.
Caterpillars apparently stand at the head of the dietary of the tufted tit, aggregating
more than half the animal food for the year (38.31 per cent). They were eaten in
every month but one—November. Of six stomachs taken in that month not one
contained caterpillars, although both October and December stomachs show fair per-
centages. The one stomach taken in August gives that month the highest of any, 76
per cent. The titmouse is so small a bird that the caterpillars eaten are mostly torn
in pieces before being swallowed, thus making identification difficult or impossible,
but the cotton leaf worm was identified in one stomach. No grasshoppers or crickets
were found. The only traces of orthopterous insects (0.42 per cent) were eggs of katy-
dids, egg cases of cockroaches, and a jaw and an ovipositor thought to be ofa grasshopper.
Spiders are picked up in moderation and rather irregularly. They are evidently
a makeshift food, and were found in 40 stomachs examined in May (12.67 per cent), 7
stomachs in June (a mere trace), and 3 stomachs in J uly (16.33 per cent). Thousand-
legs were not found. A few snails make up the remainder of the animal food. ;
Of the vegetable food, corn was discovered in one stomach, evidently taken on trial.
Fruit was eaten to a moderate extent (5.15 per cent), mostly in midsummer, and included
raspberries, blackberries, and strawberries, which might have been of eas
varieties, but probably were not. The wild fruits were such as grow by the Hes e
and in swamps, as elderberries, hackberries, blueberries, huckleberries, and mu. sa
Seeds of various kinds, as sumac—including poison ivy—bayberry, or wax S
ageregate 4.07 percent. Itis difficult to draw the line between broken seeds ‘s mas
instomachsof the tufted tit, but, together considered as mast, these form more than two-
thirds of the vegetable food. While largely composed of acorns, there 1s no doubt ee
chinquapins and beechnuts and many smaller seeds enter into its composition. As
28 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755,
thus defined, mast amounts to 23.4 per cent of the whole food, comprising 95 per cent
of that eaten in November, 50.42 per cent in January, and 55.97 per cent in February;
in fact, it is the principal vegetable food eaten from August to February. That such
small birds should crush such hard nuts as acorns and chinquapins is surprising, but
the broken fragments found in the stomachs well demonstrate their ability.
From the foregoing discussion of the food of the tufted titmouse, it is evident that the
bird is beneficial, and so far as this investigation shows it has no bad habits or tastes to
offset the good it does by its destruction of noxiousinsects. If encouraged, it becomes
domestic, and,. like the
wren, lives about the gar-
den and helps to keep in
check the hundreds of
insects that prey upon
the products of cultiva-
tion.=-F. E. L. B.
PURPLE MARTIN.!
The purple martin (fig.
14), or house martin, as
itis more commonly
called, occupies the
whole of the United
States during the breed-
ing season, but is rather
more numerous in the
South. Its habit of
building nests in boxes
provided for its express
use has caused it to be-
come the most domestic
of all swallows. Besides
houses erected for them,
the birds do not disdain
gourds hollowed out and
hung on poles. As their
food is taken on the wing,
clear, open lands, espe-
cially low moist mead-
ows, offer them better
foraging ground than or-
chards or groves. While
the greater part of their
food consists of insects
that fly, a few wingless forms, as ants, spiders, and caterpillars, are taken, but these
are most likely picked from the tops of weeds as the birds dart past. Some ants have
wings at certain times and so become part of the usual fare. In this investigation of the
martin’s food, 56 stomachs were examined, taken in the five months from March to
July, and the contents found to consist entirely of animal matter.
As might be expected, beetles do not occupy a high rank in the food of the martin,
most of them being but little on the wing. Together they form only 5.14 per cent of the
whole food. Less than 2 per cent are the predacious ground beetles, and less than half
of 1 per cent snout bectles or weevils.
B2164-58
Fig. 14.—Purple martin. Length, about § inches.
1 Progne subis.
i
: COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 29
Ants (3.68 per cent) were eaten in May, J une, and July. Naturally, these were the
winged forms, though a few wingless ones may occasionally have been taken. Other
hymenopterans, as bees and wasps, are taken much more frequently (14.67 per cent).
True bugs form the largest item of diet of the martin and consist for the most part of
the larger flying species, as stinkbugs, shield bugs, and leaf-legged bugs, with some
tree-hoppers. They are found in the food of every month and in all amount to 41.41
percent. The great bulk of the bug tribe are noxious insects and include some of the
worst pests of agriculture.
Flies are eaten to the extent of 7.2 per cent, and consist largely of the long-legeed
crane flies, or ‘‘daddy longlegs,”’ so called. Lepidopterans are represented in the stom-
achs of most birds by their larve, commonly known as caterpillars; but the martin,
taking its food on the wing, catches the adult insects, the moths, or butterflies. Most
of the moths eaten, however, are very small, so that they form only 1.25 per cent
of the food. Butterflies were found in only one stomach. Grasshoppers and crickets
(3.58 per cent) are eaten principally in May and June, instead of August, which, with
most birds, is the usual month for eating grasshoppers.
A somewhat peculiar article of the martin’s diet is the remains of large dragonflies,
found in 29 of the 56 stomachs examined. Six stomachs were entirely filled with these
rather formidable looking creatures. As dragonflies feed upon mosquitoes and other
small insects, the martin can not be considered as doing man a service by eating them.
Besides insects a few spiders also were eaten.
Among the harmful insects destroyed by the martin may be mentioned the clover
leaf weevil, found in a number of stomachs, one of which contained upward of 40 indi-
viduals. An engraver beetle, a form that does great damage to timber, was found
in one stomach and the cotton boll weevil in another. Several stomachs contained
honey bees, but all were males or drones.—F. EB. L. B.
SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER.’
The scissor-tailed flycatcher (fig. 15) is found chiefly from central and eastern Texas
and Oklahoma to southern Kansas’during the months from April to October, and
casually in western Louisiana, western Arkansas, and southwestern Missouri. It
occasionally wanders to far-distant sections, and in winter moves farther south and
with few exceptions retires beyond the southern boundary. Like the kingbird, it
prefers for nesting sites open country, and it seems to be best suited with prairies or
rolling land with scattered trees. In settled territory it takes kindly to orchards and
even gardens in the near vicinity of buildings. While generally a quiet bird living
on good terms with its neighbors, it displays some of the aggressive spirit of the king-
bird as regards crows and hawks, and whenever they appear near its nest attacks
them with great vigor. ; “Ale
The following discussion of this bird’s food is based upon examination of the con-
tents of 128 stomachs rather irregularly distributed over the seven months from April
to October. All are from Texas except one from Florida, which is considerably
outside of the bird’s usual range. The stomach contents were divided between 96.12
per cent animal food, practically all insects and spiders, and 3.88 per cent vegetable,
chi fruits and seeds. , ;
cn eeu food, beetles (13.74 per cent) form a rather constant article of diet.
Less than 1 per cent belong to theoretically useful families. The ee st
tically all harmful. The well-known 12-spotted cucumber beetle, ies : as
very injurious to the cucumber, as well as to squash vines, corn, clover, beets, beans,
peas, and asparagus, was found in one stomach. Snout beetles, rv
ina number of stomachs, and the well-known cotton boll weevil i
“the beetles are consumed in May, and the least in June, but as onl
were taken in the latter month the record is subject to revision.
or weevils, occurred
n four. Most of
y two stomachs
1 Muscivora forficata.
30 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
Bees, wasps, and ants are-eaten to the extent of 12.81 per cent of the yearly food,
which is the lowest record but one for this item among birds of the flycatcher tribe.
Asa rule this kind of food constitutes one of the most important elements of the fly-
catchers’ diet, as these insects, excepting ants, being almost constantly on the wing
during daylight, are peculiarly adapted to these birds’ methods of feeding. Those
: eaten by the scissor-tail are
mostly of the larger kinds,
i.e., bees and wasps, with
very few of thesmaller para-
sitic species.
Bugs (10.17 per cent of
the diet) were found in 47
stomachs. At least nine
families were identified,
but stinkbugs were most
abundant and were found
in 22 of the 47 stomachs.
In two stomachs was iden-
tified that disagreeable
pest, the squash bug, a
creature not classified by
entomologists in the stink-
bug family, but if diseust-
ing odor were the chief re-
quisite, it is well qualified
for that honor. Most of
the other bugs identified
areharmful. Flies (3.8 per
cent), found in the stom-
achs taken in April, May,
and September only, do
not seem to appeal to this
flycatcher; in 8 of the 14
stomachs they were identi-
fied as robber flies.
Grasshoppers and. crick-
ets, evidently a favorite
diet of the scissor-tail, were
\i |
\ \ :
| Wy WS yh Exikeees
une Wh yy Ss
Yj ;
Oa ne
INNS
| f i
\\ except April. The aver-
\\Wy age for the year is 46.07 per
/ cent—the highest for any
82156-5! flycatcher. The one stom-
Fig, 15.—Scissor-tailed flycatcher, Length, about 14 inches. ach taken in October con-
tained these insects to the
extent of 86 per cent, but it is probable that the month of maximum consumption is
July, when they attain 65 per cent. As this bird is said seldom to alight upon the
ground, these insects must be captured during their flights‘or jumps. In general,
grasshoppers and crickets are caten most by ground-feeding birds, as the meadow-
lark, while flycatchers take bees, wasps, etc. With thisbird the rule seems reversed.
Of 128 stomachs, 88 contained grasshoppers or crickets and 8 held no other food.
Caterpillars, with a few moths, constitute a small but rather regular article of diet
with the scissor-tail (4.61 per cent for the year), and were found in the stomachs of
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 381
every month except October. The cotton leaf worm was identified in several
stomachs and the cotton bollworm in one. The latter is a well-known pest in cotton
fields and also feeds upon a number of other cultivated plants, including sweet corn,
from which it is known also as the corn worm. It preys also upon tomatoes and
occasionally upon beans and peas. A few dragonflies, together with miscellaneous
insects and spiders, com-
plete the animal food (4.92
per cent).
The vegetable food of the
scissor-tail consists of small
fruit, or berries, and a few
seeds. The total percent-
age, 3.88 indicates that this
is not the favorite, but is
taken for variety.
The food of the scissor-
tailed flycatcher requires
but little study to show
that where the bird is
abundant, it is of much
economic value. The bird
selects a diet almost en-
tirely of insects, but in this
the useful species are so few
that they may be disre-
garded. Its consumption
of grasshoppersalone issuf- -
ficient to entitle the scissor-
tail to complete protec-
tion.—r. BE. L. B.
RED-COCKADED
WOODPECKER.!
The red-cockaded wood-
: \)
pecker (fig. 16) is an in- om zeN | M
habitant of the Southeast- , AN f°
yyy
ern States from eastern ZS
Texas north to southern l hy
Virginia and southern Mis-_ |f Y) Jt
souri. Pine woods are its ff Ta a (ie
favorite haunt, and a large |}
percentage of its food is (LZ
obtained from pine trees.
No complaints have yet
been heard that this bird ; ;
harms crops or forest trees, nor does analysis of its food indicate that such is the case.
So far as shown, it does not frequent orchards or cultivated land. -
Ninety-nine stomachs from Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Texas, representing every month, but not many in each, were examined. Of the
total food, 86.08 per cent was composed of insects, and the remainder, 13.92 per cent,
of vegetable matter, mostly seeds of conifers.
Useful beetles were found in nine stomachs, and amount to about 2 per cent of
he whole food. Other beetles, chiefly the larve of wood-boring species, aggregate
ZB
B2156-46
Fia. 16.—Red-cockaded woodpecker. Length, about 84 inches.
1 Dryobates borealis.
82 FARMERS’ BULLETIN "55.
15.65 per cent of the annual diet. Of these a number were weevils, or snout beetles.
Ants, evidently the favorite food, were eaten to a great extent in every month.
December is apparently the month of least consumption (28.93 per cent), and July
of maximum (69.6 per cent), but the data are hardly sufficient to give final figures,
The average consumption for the year (51.72 per cent) is exceeded. by few other
birds.
True bugs, many of which are scales, or bark lice, are eaten to the extent of 6.99
per cent of the food. The others are mostly pentatomids, or soldier bugs. Nearly
all were taken in the five months from December to April, and two-thirds of them
in December and January. These insects, and especially the pentatomids, are
lovers of warm weather and sunshine and many live on fruit. It seems probable
that this bird gets them from their hibernating places. Grasshoppers, crickets,
caterpillars, white ants, spiders, and egg cases of cockroaches, make up the rest of
the animal food.
The greater part of the vegetable food, about a tenth of the total, consists of mast,
mostly seeds of conifers. This was found in 45 of the 99 stomachs, and appears to
B2167-47
Fig, 17,—Chuck-will’s-widow, Length, about 12 inches.
be a somewhat regular article of dict, especially in the colder months. Fruit pulp,
poison-ivy seeds, bayberry and other seeds, cambium, and rubbish each occurred
in a few stomachs, and together amount to about 4 per cent of the food. Corn was
found in four stomachs, and unidentified fruit pulp in eight. The cambium was con-
tained in four stomachs, and the seeds of poison ivy in one.
From the foregoing it is evident that the red-cockaded woodpecker does little
if any damage to products of husbandry and that it does good work in the forest
by devouring wood-boring larve. No doubt it aids in distributing the seeds of the
pines upon which it feeds, but its food has little other economic interest.—F. E. L. B.
CHUCK-WILL’S-WIDOW.'
The chuck-will’s-widow (fig. 17), an interesting nocturnal bird, breeds throughout
the area to which this bulletin is devoted. Like other species of its family, it lays
1 Antrostomus carolinensis.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES, 33
only two eggs, which may be deposited almost anywhere on the forest floor, there
being no nest. Intrusion on this spot usually results in the bird moving the eggs,
which it carries in its mouth.
The bird’s flight is noiseless and graceful, and is somewhat more extended and sus-
tained than that of the whip-poor-will but less so than that of the nighthawk. Its
call note, which has given rise to the name here used as well as to others of similar
sound, is like that of the whip-poor-will, with an added syllable.
The color of the chuck-will’s-widow is a harmonious blend of buff, brown, and
black, well adapted to concealing the bird as it rests quietly in the-woods by day.
Surrounding the mouth are numerous branched bristles which with the enormous
gape make a very efficient insect-catching apparatus. Although the bird is only
12 inches long, the mouth fully extended forms an opening at least 2 by 3} inches
in size. It is but natural, therefore, that the bird should prey upon some of the
largest insects.
Not only are large insects captured and swallowed, but even small birds. Three
ofthe 45 stomachs of the chuck-will’s-widow thus far examined contained remains
of birds, in two cases warblers. As 42 of the 45 stomachs were collected in April and
May, the food percentages apply only to those two months. The percentage made
up of small birds is 7.21. 7
Over 58 per cent of the food is composed of large beetles of the family of leaf chafers.
Considerably more than half of these are May beetles, the adults of the white grubs
so destructive to forage crops and lawns. Among other destructive beetles of this
group eaten by the chuck-will’s-widow are the spotted vine chafer, and several
others injurious to grapevines and apple trees. There were found also in stomachs
of this bird specimens of the southern pine sawyer, a borer that in the South has
destroyed timber valued at millions of dollars; beetles of a group whose larve bore
in roots, sometimes of orchard trees; and the palmetto weevil, which is sometimes
destructive to palms.
Moths, mostly of large species, compose 12.36 per cent of this bird’s food in April
and May, and dragonflies 4.63 per cent. Specimens were taken of the largest dragon-
fly known to occur in eastern United States. Other items of insect food are water
beetles, ground beetles, click beetles (the adults of wireworms), crane flies (inju-
rious to pastures), horseflies, roaches, and green locusts.
Despite the fact that the chuck-will’s-widow occasionally devours smaller insec-
tivorous birds, it must be reckoned a useful species. It is probable that birds are not
deliberately sought, but that they are taken instinctively, as would be a moth or
other large insect coming within reach of that capacious mouth. Generally speaking,
therefore, the chuck-will’s-widow is insectivorous and most of the insects it eats are
destructive.—Ww. L. M.
rire NIGHTHAWE.!
The nighthawk, or bull-bat, has unfortunately attracted more attention as a target
for shooting practice than as an object of esthetic and economic consideration. How
many thousands of these useful birds have been sacrificed in this thoughtless way it
would be difficult to estimate, but the practice has been extant since early times
and has resulted in an enormous reduction in their numbers. What is worse, the night-
hawk is particularly unfitted to withstand this sort of persecution, as it lays only
two eggs. Thus perpetuation of the species under favorable conditions is only barely
assured. That the bird deserves very different treatment there is no sort of doubt.
Asan adornment of the landscape it has few superiors among birds. A flock of night-
hawks pursuing their complex but skillful aerial evolutions is an object of interest
and admiraion seldom excelled. Not only ‘has the ‘species a pronounced esthetic
value, but economically it is practically beyond reproach. The nighthawk is strictly
1 Chordeiles virginianus.
84 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
insectivorous, and for this reason no blame can be attached to it on the score of its
damazing crops. The only charge that can be made against the bird is that it destroys
some useful insects, but these are far in the minority.
Nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them. They sweep
up in their capacious mouths everything from the largest moths and dragonflies to
the tiniest ants and gnats, and in this way sometimes gather most remarkable collec-
tions of insects. Several stomachs have contained 50 or more different kinds, and
the number of individuals may run into the thousands.
Nearly a fourth of the bird’s total food is composed of ants. These insects are gener-
ally annoying and often very injurious, especially in relation to stored products and
in their activities in fostering destructive plant lice. More than a fifth of the night-
hawk’s food consists of May beetles, dung beetles, and other beetles of the leaf chafer
family: These are the adults of white grubs, noted pests, and even as adults many
members of the family are decidedly harmful.
Numerous other injurious beetles, as click beetles, wood borers, and weevils, are:
eaten. True bugs, moths, flies, grasshoppers, and crickets also are important elements
of the food, as are several species of mosquitoes, including the transmitters of malaria.
Other well-known pests consumed are the Colorado potato beetle, cucumber beetles,
rice, clover leaf,
and cotton boll
weevils, billbugs,
bark beetles,
squash bugs, and
moths of the cot-
ton worm. No
fewer than 18 spe-
cies of bark bee-
tles, which are
“among the most
destructive forest
Ul \ pel 2 / enemies, have
P4ZR J been identified in
the food of the
nighthawk.
Nighthawks de-
servedly receive
Betsa4g «full legal, protec-
Fia. 18.—Yellow-billed cuckoo. Length, about 124 inches. tion everywhere,
5 and citizens
should see that the law is obeyed. The nighthawk is far too useful and attractive a
species to be persecuted. Especial attention should be given to safeguarding any
eggs that may be found. They are deposited on the bare ground or rocks, on logs, or on
flat gravel roofs in cities.—w. L. M.
YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.!
Cuckoos are rather shy birds, keeping among the foliage of trees or bushes and
making but little noise. They do not, however, entirely avoid the abodes of man,
but where trees are abundant many may frequently be seen about houses or even in
the village streets or parks. On very hot mornings in midsummer their familiar
inower not very musical cry of ‘‘kow-kow” is said to presage rain; hence the name
‘rain crow” by which these birds are frequently known.
The two most abundant species in the United States are the black-billed and
yellow-billed cuckoos, but the yellow-bill (fig. 18) is more abundant and better known
in the South and probably is the more important economically,
My
NTA
1 Coccyzus americanus.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 35
The common observation that cuckoos feed largely on caterpillars has been con-
firmed by stomach examination. Furthermore, they appear to prefer the hairy and
spiny species, which are supposed to be protected from the attacks of birds. The
extent to which cuckoos eat hairy caterpillars is shown by the inner coatings of the
stomachs, which frequently are so pierced by these hairs and spines that they are
completely iurred.
For this treatise 110 stomachs of the yellow-billed cuckoo were available, all but
one taken from April to October. That one, secured in Texas in January, was of a
bird which had remained in the United States after its companions had moved on
farther south; its food consisted of one large harvest fly or ‘‘locust”’ and two or three
spiders, the latter very unusual food at this season.
The contents of the other stomachs were practically all animal matter, only a small
fraction of 1 per cent of vegetable rubbish being found in one stemach taken in Texas
in August and one seed of sour gum in a stomach taken in Alabama in October.
Over 92 per cent of the food consists of three orders of insects, viz, bugs (12.25 per
cent), caterpillars (65.63 per cent), and grasshoppers (14.34 per cent).
Bugs found in 37 stomachs were nearly all of the larger kinds, like cicadas, stink-
bugs, squash bugs, and leaf-footed bugs. They constitute an important article of
food from April to August, after which they disappear. July is the month of greatest
consumption (29 pér cent), and the average for the four months from April to J uly is
more than a fifth of the whole food (21.98 per cent). Among the bugs were the period-
ical cicadas and several forms injurious to oranges and melons and other cucurbit
crops.
Caterpillars were found in 91 stomachs and in 24 they were the sole contents. One
of the most important of these is the cotton worm, found in 34 stomachs in numbers
varying from 1 to 150 each. At least four held 100 each, and it is probable that the
average number of these insects in the 34 stomachs was 50. It is hardly necessary to
comment upon the economic importance of this work. Until the introduction of
the cotton boll weevil, the cotton worm was the worst pest with which the southern
planter had to contend. In the southern tier of cotton States a loss of a fourth of the
crop was formerly expected, and if the yield was not reduced a half the planter con-
sidered himself fortunate. Examination of many stomachs shows that this insect is
a common article of daily food for the cuckoo, as well as for many other birds, and
that these birds must exercise a very important restraint upon its increase.
The apple-tree tent caterpillar was found in one stomach. Where apples are grown
this insect is a pest, and it is fortunate that there is a bird ready and willing to restrain
its ravages. Another caterpillar eaten by the cuckoo was the red-humped apple
caterpillar, an insect that feeds in colonies upon apple and other trees and often does
considerable damage. In all, caterpillars constitute two-thirds of the total food of
the yellow-billed cuckoo in the South. Few birds feed so exclusively upon any one
order of insects. :
The natural food for cuckoos would seem to be bugs and caterpillars which feed upon
leaves, as these birds live in the shade among the leaves of trees and bushes. Not so
with grasshoppers, whose favorite haunts are on the ground in the blazing sunshine,
yet these creatures are the second largest item in the cuckoo’s diet. Grasshoppers are
so agreeable an article of food that many a bird apparently forsakes its usual feeding
grounds and takes to the earth for them. Thus it is with the cuckoos; they quit their
cool, shady retreats in order to gratify their taste for these insects of the hot sunshine.
But there are some members of the grasshopper order that live in the shade, as katydids,
tree crickets, and ground crickets, and these are all used to vary the cuckoo’s bill of
fare. Grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids as a whole constitute 14.34 per cent of the
cuckoo’s diet. : . .
Beetles (3.16 per cent), eaten 50 extensively by so many birds, are of rae .
portance in the diet of the cuckoo. Only a trace of the predacious ground beetles
36 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
wasiound. The others were divided into small portions among several families, and
no special pest among them was noted. Ants, wasps, and bees comprise less than 1
per cent and are evidently not favorites. A few spiders are taken, mostly in June,
and a few moths also are eaten, but the most unexpected food for a cuckoo was three
small tree frogs, found in as many stomachs. 7
‘As the birds discussed in this paper were collected from a limited area, it will be of
interest to take a glimpse at some facts obtained by the examination of stomachs of
the same species taken in all parts of the United States. Of a total of about 300
stomachs, the Colorado potato beetle was found in 4; the dog-day harvest fly, or
“locust,’”? in 33; the cotton worm in 37, many stomachs containing over 100 indi-
viduals; the yellow-necked apple caterpillar in 34, many stomachs completely filled
with them; the fall webworm in 3, one of which held 250; and the tent caterpillar
in 7 stomachs, frequently to the extent of 100 or more individuals each. In all of
ini
\
RHE 7
se
B2159-3!
Fic. 19.—Bob-white. Length, about 10 inches.
these cases the statements are very conservative, as these larve are so soft that they
soon become unrecognizable in the process of digestion, and only those recently eaten
can be identified.
The yellow-billed cuckoo is a valuable ally of the farmer. It has no objectionable
habits, but does destroy many serious agricultural pests, chici among which are the
many species of caterpillars, of which this bird makes about two-thirds of its food.—
PELL. B.
BOB-WHITE.!
No bird is better known to country residents than the bob-white (fig. 19). The
Dird’s cheery calls the year round form part of the most pleasant associations of country
life, and its neat form and harmonious coloration, and especially its confiding habits,
make it a general favorite. ;
Any brushy fence row serves as a retreat for its nest, or for winter shelter, and weed-
covered fields are its favorite feeding places. Weed seeds-form more than half the
total food and include those of all the worst weed pests of the farm. Among them
may be mentioned crab, cockspur, witch, and foxtail grasses, sheep sorrel, smaartweed,
1 Colinus virginianus.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 37
bindweed, lamb’s-quarters, pigweed, corn cockle, chickweed, charlock, partridge
pea, beggar lice, nail grass, rib grass, ragweed, and Spanish needles.
Acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and pine seeds make up about 2.5 per cent of the
food, and wild fruits about 10 per cent. The fruits include berries of palmetto, smilax,
wax myrtle, mulberry, sassafras, blackberries and raspberries, rose haws, cherry,
sumac, grapes, sour gum, blueberries, honeysuckle, partridge berry, and a number
of others. The bob-white feeds to a slight extent upon buds and leaves, including
those of yellow and red sorrel, cinquefoil, and clover.
Grain forms scarcely more than a sixth of the food, but most of it is taken during
winter and early spring when nothing but waste grain is available. The habit of
gleaning this after the harvest is beneficial to the. farm, for volunteer grain is not
desirable, especially where it serves to maintain certain insect and fungus pests.
Although most of the grain and seed crops grown upon the farm are represented in
bob-white’s dietary, no significant damage can be attributed to the bird.
Animal food, chiefly insects, composes nearly a sixth of the bird’s subsistence.
Froni June to August, inclusive, when insects are most numerous, their proportion
in the food is about 36 per cent. The variety of insect food is great and includes a
number of the most destructive agricultural pests. Among them may be mentioned
the Colorado potato beetle, 12-spotted cucumber beetle, bean leaf beetle, squash lad y-
bird, wireworms, May beetles, corn billbugs, clover leaf weevil, cotton boll weevil,
army worm, bollworm, cutworms, and chinch bug.
On the strength of the bob-white’s feeding on the boll weevil, a campaign has been
waged in several Southern States for complete protection for the bird. This move-
ment is particularly ill advised, since this bird is by no means prominent among the
enemies of the boll weevil. Some 220 stomachs of bob-whites collected in cotton
fields have been examined, with the result that a single boll weevil was found in
one stomach. The reports of bob-white’s eating large numbers of boll weevils are
based on field observations, which are very liable to inaccuracy, and upon the be-
havior of captive birds, which has little if any value as an indication of their habits
under natural conditions. ;
On the other hand, the food habits of the bob-white undoubtedly are beneficial
and the bird should be maintained in numbers on every farm. This is not to say
that all’shooting should be prohibited, for the bird is very prolific. But its numbers
should not be reduced below what the available nesting sites and range will support.—
W.L.M.
SWALLOW-TAILED KITE.’
The swallow-tailed kite is not only one of the most common birds of prey in the
South, but also one of the most beneficial. Its head, neck, and lower parts are white,
and its back, wings, and tail, a glossy bluish black. The bird is as much at home in
the air as a swift or swallow, usually feeding and drinking without alighting. Its
ease and grace of movement always command admiration.
This kite preys upon beetles, wasps, cotton worms, grasshoppers, and dragonflies.
It takes also frogs, lizards, and small snakes. The swallow-tailed kite seems to be
entirely innocent of preying upon birds or mammals, after the fashion of so many of
its raptorial relatives, and on the whole is a species worthy of preservation.—w. u. M.
TURKEY BUZZARD.’
Turkey buzzards (fig. 20) are familiar features of southern landscapes. On the
ground they appear uncouth and awkward, but in the air show a skill, particularly in
soaring, approached by few other birds. Their wonderful soaring flight has been a
subject of study by a multitude of observers, and the buzzard is not only the model
but also the inspiration of the American invented aeroplane. The bird is chiefly
1 Elanoides fortificatus. 2 Cathartes aura septentrionalis.
38 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 1755,
black in color, but the naked skin of the head and neck and the Lase of the Lill are
bright red.1
Buzzards nest on the ground under brush piles, bushes, or palmettos, or in hollow
logs or rock crevices. They roost usually on dead branches, and sometimes, specially
in winter, congregate in large numbers.
All vultures specialize in feeding on carrion. While under natural corditions the
number of dead animals available for them is somewhat limited, yet, where the human
population is considera-
. { ble and sanitary condi-
tions not over good, there
is much work forbuzzards,
and they fillan important
place. For nearly three
centuries their work has
been appreciated at its
full value in the South,
and these birds have been
scrupulously protected.
The turkey buzzard
now is threatened with
persecution in the land
where heretofore it has
received the most zealous
protection, for the bird has
been accused of spreading
such diseases of live stock
as hog cholera and an-
thrax. The charge that
it spreads hog cholera has
never been demonstrated,
and until this is done
judgment should be sus-
pended. Its relation to
anthrax has been inves-
tigated with the result
that in the distribution
of the disease the bird
must be considered a
minor agency as com-
pared with man and va-
rious domestic and cer-
tain wild animals.
The nature of their food
would indicate that buz-
zards have strong diges-
tive powers. The spores
of anthrax, or charbon, a
virulent stock disease, have been shown by two independent investigations to be
destroyed by passing through the alimentary canals of buzzards. Anthrax spores are
not destroyed in the digestive tracts of other carrion-feeding animals, as the dog, cat,
hog, chicken, or opossum.
B2160-36
Fig. 20.—Turkey buzzard. Length, about 30 inches.
1 The black vulture ( Catharista urubu), more abundant near the seacoast and more southern in distribu-
tion than the turkey buzzard, differs from the latter in having the head and neck black, and the under
surfaceof the wingssilvery. The flight of this vulture is more labored, and accompanied by more flapping
ofthe wings. In general habits the two birds are alike.
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 39
It is true that buzzards may carry the germs of anthrax or other stock diseases on
their plumage, feet, or bills, and thus distribute them; but all the other animals just
mentioned may similarly carry disease germs on the surfaces of their bodies, as may
also flies, domestic pigeons and other poultry, horses, mules, and cattle, not to mention
members of the human family. In fact at the same time that steps are being taken
greatly to reduce or exterminate a wild bird—the buzzard—which may possibly play
a minor part in the transmission of anthrax, farmers are harboring several domestic
animals that have far greater possibilities as spreaders of the disease. The fact that
anthrax may be carried by flies is more than sufficient to explain the most severe
epidemics.
Obviously, it is unfair to attempt to place the blame for general dissemination of
stock diseases on the buzzard. Considering the multitude of ways in which these
diseases may be spread, it can not be doubted that stock diseases would be as widely
distributed as now if turkey buzzards were eliminated, as has been proposed. What
amounts to proof of this is the fact that hog cholera at times is virulent and seriously
destructive in regions where there are few or no turkey buzzards, asin certain Northern
States and Canadian Provinces.
Attacks in the South by buzzards upon living farm animals indicate that there are
to many buzzards there for the best economic interests. In the North, where buzzards
are fewer, such attacks are believed never to occur. Reduction in the number of ©
buzzards may be desirable, especially if accompanied by or resulting from a proper
system of carrion disposal, but there is a wide gulf both in meaning and desirability
between reduction in numbers and extermination.
Practically the only way to carry on a destructive campaign against the buzzard
would be byshooting. Inevitably the guns would largely be in the hands of the less
responsible classes of the population, and many birds other than buzzards would
undoubtedly beshot. Thisisa powerful argument against undertaking extermination
of buzzards unless it shall be definitely proved to be necéssary.—w. L. M.
PUBLICATIONS. OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
RELATING TO THE FOOD OF BIRDS.
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTM <NT.
The English Sparrow asa Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 493.) : :
Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. (Farmers’
Bulletin 497.)
Bird Houses and How to Build Them. (Farmers’ Bulletin 609.)
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 630.)
Plants Useful to Attract Birds and Protect Fruit. (Yearbook Separate 504.)
Winter Crow Roosts. (Yearbook Separate 659.)
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Our Grosbeaks and Their Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 456.) Price
5 cents.
Food of Some Well-Known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. (Farmers’ Bulletin
506.) Price 5 cents.
Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. (Farmers’ Bulletin 513, colored illustra-
tions.) Price, 15 cents. ;
Food of the Robins and Bluebirds of the United States. (Department Bulletin 171.)
Price, 5 cents.
Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. (Department Bulletin 280.)
Price, 5 cents.
Bird Enemies of the Codling Moth, (Yearbook Separate 564.) Price, 5 cents.
Our Meadowlarks in Relation to Agriculture. (Yearbook Separate 590.) Price, 5
cents.
Relation of Birds to Grain Aphides. (Yearbook Separate 601.) Price, 5 cents.
Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. (Biological Survey Bulletin 32.) Price, 25 cents.
Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. (Biological Survey Bulletin 37.)
Price, 35 cents. as
Birds of Arkansas. (Biological Survey Bulletin 38.) Price, 25 cents.
Woodpeckers in Relation to Trees and Wood Products. (Biological Survey Bulletin
39.) Price, 30 cents.
Index to Papers Relating to the Food of Birds, by Members of the Biological Survey,
in Publications of the Department of Agriculture, 1885-1911. (Biological Survey
Bulletin 43.) Price, 10 cents.
ae of Our More Important Flycatchers. (Biological Survey Bulletin 44.) Price,
cents.
Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer. (Biological Survey Circular 61.)
Price, 5 cents.
Destruction of the Cotton Boll Weevil by Birdsin Winter. (Biological Survey Circular
64.) Price, 5 cents.
40
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMDNT PRINTING OFFICD : 1916
<i Zi
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
FARMERS’ BULLETIN No. 630
“SOME COMMON,
ae USEFUL: .
ROM a purely practical point of view the most
important of the relations of native birds to
man are the economic. The esthetic value of birds
is great—greater, indeed, than that of any other
group of animals; and that this is a real and espe-
cially treasured value is not to be denied. But it
is in their relation to insect and other enemies of
crops that birds are most directly associated with
the welfare of mankind, and their value in this par-
ticular should be made as widely known as possible.
This bulletin is one of a series designed to assist
in doing this. Not all birds are beneficial, and all
facts tending to show in which class each species
belongs will be set forth. The useful kinds far out-
number the injurious, however, and:so great is their
value as insect destroyers in the United States that
to them may be given the credit of being one of
the greatest controlling factors in limiting the de-
velopment of insect pests and in preventing many
disastrous outbreaks.
In the following pages are discussed the habitat,
food habits, and relation to agriculture of more than
50 species of birds common to farming sections.
Washington, D.C. Issued February 13,1915; revised May, 1923
SOME COMMON BIRDS USEFUL TO THE FARMER.’
By F. E. L, Brat, Late Assistant Biologist, Division of Food Habits Research,
Bureau of Biological Survey.
CONTENTS.
Page. y Page.
The bluebirds____________________ 2 | Bullock oriole__------------------ 14
The robins__-__ 8 | The meadowlarks_--_---—---_-~--- 14
DUO PCS coc seeat lana teeoan cee sans, 4 | The red-winged blackbirds____-_--- 15
The wrens _________ ss 6 | Bobolink __-._---~~-------------- 17
Brown thrasher____-______ | 7 | Crow -__------------------------ 17
Catbirdssu soo. c eee 7 | Blue jay 19
The swallows... 8 20
Towhee_______ 9 21
The sparrows_ 9 28
House finch __ 11 24
The grackles____ 12 25
Brewer blackbird_____ - 12 38
Baltimore oriole.___.._____..._____ 13 | Bobwhite____- --_---------------- 28
HETHER a bird is beneficial or injurious depends almost
entirely upon what it eats. In the case of species which are
very abundant, or which feed to some extent on the crops of
the farmer, the question of their average diet becomes one of supreme
importance, and only by stomach examinations can it be satisfac-
torily answered. Field observations are at best but fragmentary and
inconclusive and lead to no final results. Birds are often accused
. of eating this or that product of cultivation, when an examination
of the stomachs shows the accusation to be unfounded.. Accordingly,
the Biological Survey has conducted for some years a systematic
investigation of the food of those species which are most common
about the farm and garden. ;
Within certain limits birds eat the kind of food that is most
accessible, especially when their natural food is scarce or wanting.
Thus they sometimes injure the crops of the farmer who has unin-
tentionally destroyed their natural food in his improvement of
swamp or pasture. Most of the damage done by birds and com-
plained of by farmers and fruit growers arises from this very cause.
The berry-producing shrubs and seed-bearing weeds have been cleared
away, and the birds have no recourse but to attack the ee
grain or fruit which has replaced their natural food supply. é
great majority of land birds subsist upon insects during the period
of nesting and molting, and also feed their young upon them during
the first few weeks. Many species live almost entirely upon insects,
taking vegetable food se when other subsistence fails. It is thus
7 al.
1This bulletin is largely a revision of Farmers’ Bulletin 54, by Pb oe i. elie
he parts relating to the crow and De a rere eae bent es ey WL, McA tee,
as = . * ssion 0 * -
in cheres, Mod Watite eee i Professor Beal, author of the remainder of the bulle
tin, died October 1, 1916. 1
2 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
evident that in the course of a year birds destroy an incalculable
number of insects, and it is difficult to overestimate the value of their
services in restraining the great tide of insect life.
In winter, in the northern part of the country, insects become
scarce or entirely disappear. Many species of birds, however, remain
during the cold season and are able to maintain life by eating vege-
table food, as the seeds of weeds. Here again is another useful func-
tion of birds in destroying these weed seeds and thereby lessening
the growth of the next year.
In the following pages are discussed the food habits of more than
50 birds belonging to 12 families. Many are eastern forms which
are represented in the West by slightly different species or sub-
species, but unless the food habits differ they are not separately
described. In some cases specific percentages of food are given,
but for the most part the statements are made without direct refer-
ence to the data on which they are based.’
THE BLUEBIRDS.
The eastern bluebird’ (fig. 1), one of the most familiar and welcome of our
feathered visitors, is a common inhabitant of all the States east of the Rocky
Mountains from. the Gulf of Mexico to southern Canada. In the Mississippi
valley it winters as far north as southern Illinois, and in the East as far as
Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest northern migrants, and everywhere is
hailed as a harbinger of spring. Very domestic in habits, it frequents orchards
: and gardens, and builds its nests in
cavities of trees, crannies in farm
buildings, or boxes provided for its
use.
The bluebird has not been accused,
so far as known, of stealing fruit or
of preying upon crops. An examina-
tion of 855 stomachs showed that 68
per cent of the food consists of in-
sects and their allies, while the other
32 per cent is made up of various
vegetable substances, found mostly in
stomachs taken in winter, Beetles
constitute 21 per cent of the whole
food, grasshoppers 22, caterpillars 10,
and various other insects 9, while a
number of spiders and myriapods,
fant a about 6 per cent, comprise- the re-
Fie. 1.—Bluebird. Length, about 6% inches. mainder of the animal diet. All
these are more or less harmful, ex-
cept a few predacious beetles, which amount to 9 per cent. In view of the large
consumption of grasshoppers and caterpillars, we may at least condone this
offense, if such it muy be called, The destruction of grasshoppers is very
noticeable in August and September, when these insects make up about 53 per
cent of the diet.
It is evident that in the selection of its food the bluebird is governed more
by abundance than by choice. Predacious beetles are eaten in spring, as they
are among the first insects to appear; but in early summer caterpillars form
an important part of the dict, and these are later replaced by grasshoppers.
Beetles are eaten ‘at all times, except when grasshoppers are more easily
obtained.
So far as its vegetable food is concerned the bluebird is positively harmless.
The only trace of any useful product in the stomachs consisted of a-few black-
a se iy of bulletins describing the food habits of wild birds and groups of birds,
® Malia sialis.
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 8
berry seeds, and even these probably belonged to wild rather than cultivated
varieties. Following is a list of the various seeds which were found; Black-
berry, chokeberry, juniperberry, pokeberry, partridgeberry, greenbrier, Viginia
creeper, bittersweet, holly, strawberry bush, false spikenard, wild sarseparilla,
sumac (several species), rose haws, sorrel, ragweed, grass, and asparagus. This
list shows how little the bluebird depends upon the farm or garden to supply
its needs and how easily, by encouraging the growth of some of these plants,
many of which are highly ornamental, the bird may be induced to make its
home on the premises.
Two species of bluebirds inhabit the Western States—the mountain bluebird *
and the western bluebird.’ In their food habits they are evep more to be com-
mended than their eastern relative. Their insect food is obtainable at all
times of, the year, and the general diet varies only in the fall, when some fruit,
principally elderberries, is eaten, though an occasional blackberry or grape is
also relished. In an examination of 217 stomachs of the western bluebird, ani-
mal matter (insects and spiders) was found to the extent of 82 per cent and
vegetable matter to the extent of 18 per cent. The bulk of the former consists
of bugs, grasshoppers, and caterpillars. Grasshoppers, when they can be ob-
tained, are eaten freely during the whole season. Caterpillars also are a
favorite food and are eaten during every month of the year; March is the month
of greatest consumption, with 50 per cent, and the average for the year is 20
per cent. Two stomachs taken in January contained 64 and 50 per cent, respec-
tively, of caterpillars. Beetles also :
are eaten and comprise mostly
harmful species.
- The vegetable matter- consists of
weed seeds and small fruits. In
December a few grapes are eaten,
but elderberries are the favorites
whenever they can be found. It is
only when these are in their great-
est abundance that vegetable ex-
ceeds animal food.
THE ROBINS.
ae
Fig. 2.—Robin. Length, about 10 inches.
The robin ° (fig. 2), in many parts
of the country one of the most cher-
ished of our birds, is found Hirowgnoitt the Sites :
represented farther west and south by slig
breeds far north through Canada, and is found even in Alaska. aa
great bulk of the species leaves the Northern States in winter, a few a Ee rs ee
remain in sheltered swamps, where wild berries furnish abundant oat ithe
robin is an omnivorous feeder and its food habits have sometimes ee i ret oe
hension to the fruit grower, for it is fond of cherries and. other igs ue
particularly the earlier varieties. For this reason many comet a = Piet
lodged against robins, and it has been necessary to permit the killing
birds in some fruit-growing regions. 7 . .
Examinations of 1236 eto ene show that 42 per cent of ate = Pega
matter, principally insects, while the remainder is made up fine oe ehiah
fruits or berries. Over 16 per cent consists of beetles, gore ae other insects
are useful ground beetles, taken mostly in spring and eer Dk food, but in
are scarce. Grasshoppers make up about 5 per cent of a = Penk while
August they comprise 17 per cent. Caterpillars: form abou Laue Becks
the rest of the animal food, about 11 per cent, is made up 0 ie ae ieee
with a few spiders, snails, and angleworms. All the grass heey ie is safe to
and bugs, with a large portion of the beetles, Bt acd ot the pout food.
say that noxious insects comprise more than one-t) ents, over 42 per cent
t
Vegetable food forms 58 per cent of the stomach con ’ 2 e
being wil Sie and only A little more than 8 per cent being possibly culti
i in
vated varieties. Cultivated fruit amounting to about 25 per cent was found
east of the Great Plains, and is
ly different subspecies.” It
iali i 6 Planesticus migratorius. ;
Sali peed RAEN i Pecos migratorius propinquus.
5 Sialia mexicana subspecies. ee ee
8 Planesticus migratorius
4 FARMERS’ BULLETIN 755,
nighthawk, crow, red-headed woodpecker, and the yellow-headed
and crow blackbirds. Forty-three kinds of birds feed upon the army
worms, pests destructive to corn and all small grains. Highty-eight
southeastern species devour cutworms, which are often the despair
of grain growers and gardeners. Largest numbers of cutworms have
been found in stomachs of the prairie chicken, bob-white, wood
duck, woodcock, sparrow hawk, yellow-billed cuckoo, nighthawk,
red-headed woodpecker, crow blackbird, meadowlark, English spar-
row, cardinal, and robin.
No insect enemy of corn and wheat is more destructive than the
chinch bug; when it is numerous, fields are blasted as if by fire. It
is often said that the chinch bug has few natural enemies, but the
work of birds, 24 species of which feed upon chinch bugs, should not
be overlooked. Over 100 of these pests have been found in single
stomachs of the bob-white and meadowlark, and over 200 in one
of a brown thrasher. Other birds consuming chinch bugs in con-
siderable numbers are the flicker, the crow, the barn, tree, and cliff
swallows, and the house wren. The southern corn leaf beetle, a pest
that has come to be of considerable importance in the past few years,
is devoured by 22 kinds of birds. Those taking the largest numbers
are the mockingbird, the Bewick wren, and the house wren.
Among other corn insects may be mentioned the southern corn
rootworm (or spotted cucumber beetle), eaten by 26 species of south-
eastern birds; beetles of a group including the cane root borer and
the carrot beetle, devoured by 18 species; and the brown fruit-chafer,
by 21. The last-named beetle feeds also on apples, pears, and
peaches, as does a related insect known as the southern fig eater.
Fourteen species of birds prey upon the fig eater, the crow most
extensively.
The insect pests of clover and other forage crops in the South-
eastern States also are sought by many birds. Perhaps more dam-
age is done in the aggregate by leafhoppers than by other enemies
of these crops. Exactly 100 species of southeastern birds are now
known to feed on these small but exceedingly numerous insect pests.
Largest numbers of leafhoppers have been found in stomachs of the
nighthawk, chimney swift, barn swallow, and yellow-headed black-
bird. Clover is attacked by a number of insect pests, including the
imbricated-snout beetle and the various clover weevils. The first
named is eaten by 20 kinds of birds, of which the crow, crow black-
bird, and catbird seem most voracious. The common or large clover
leaf weevil is the prey of 25 species of birds. The nighthawk, crow,
red-headed woodpecker, purple martin, and crow blackbird have the
best records for destruction of adults, and the Savannah and vesper
sparrows of the larva. The smaller clover weevils are eaten by 74
species of southeastern birds. Largest numbers of these weevils
COMMON BIRDS OF SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES. 5
have been found in the stomachs of the robin, hermit thrush, tufted
titmouse, and white-crowned sparrow, and of the following four
species of birds, some representative of each of which had con-
sumed at one meal more than 50 individuals: Nighthawk, chimney
swift, tree swallow, and purple martin.
It is perhaps worth while to mention the bird predators upon cer-
tain insect enemies of truck crops. The destructive little cucumber
flea beetle and its congeners, which feed on potato, tomato, sweet
potato, eggplant, and tobacco, are preyed upon by 19 species
of southeastern birds. The sweet potato flea beetle and its allies
have 28 known bird enemies in this section; the grapevine leaf beetle,
21; the grape flea beetle, 23;.and the bean leaf beetle, 19. The rice
weevil has been found in stomachs of 20 species of birds, the notori-
ous Colorado potato beetle in 26, and the periodical cicada, or 17-
year locust, in 33. Pests of considerable importance in the South
whose bird enemies it is well to mention are the horseflies. These
are preyed upon by 49 species of southeastern birds. The stomach
of one killdeer contained 40 horsefly larve.
The foregoing demonstrates that many of the worst pests of south-
em agriculture have enemies in the bird world. The insects which
have been considered chiefly are those destructive to grain and field
crops; but among forest insects, fruit insects, and all the host that
prey upon truck and garden crops, few can be mentioned that do not
have important bird enemies. Farmers should recognize their friends
and do all in their power to protect them.
HOUSE WREN.!
The house wren (fig. 2), a fussy, flighty, and fidgety little midget, irequents the
vicinity of barns and gardens and particularly old orchards where the trees are par-
tially decayed. Never for a moment at rest while there is a ray of daylight, it would
seem that his small body must soon be worn out by his incessant activity. His
voice, as tireless as his wings, is heard from morning until night about the garden and
orchard where he seeks his daily food, and while not very melodious it is cheerful
and suggestive of life and activity.
Probably no bird displays greater eccentricity in the selection of a nesting site than
the house wren. A hollow branch or a knothole in a post or stump are his more
prosaic choices. When more esthetically inclined he affects old boots or hats hung
up to scare the robin from the cherries, or takes an old copper pot or tomato can lying
on the roof of a back shed; or, if the gardener hangs his coat on the fence when warm
weather begins and forgets it for a few days, he may find when he returns that an
enterprising wren has preempted one of the pockets and has his domestic affairs under
full headway. The empty skull of a horse or cow when set on a post by the frolic-
some schoolboy makes an excellent nesting place for the wren, who is never troubled
by the ghost of the former occupant. Whatever place he chooses, his ambition is
to occupy the whole of it. This he accomplishes by carrying in sticks, straws, and
other rubbish until all available space is filled, only just room enough being left for
the mother bird and her eggs.
1 Troglodytes aédon.
6 ‘Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
Perhaps the most important and interesting insect found was the black olive
scale, which occurred in 24 stomachs and amounted to a little more than 18
per cent of the food. In addition, a number of the stomachs were more or less
filled with another scale, which was not further identified. A number of small
snout beetles (weevils) were eaten and some small caterpillars; there were also
the remains of a spider.
The vegetable food of the species seemed to consist mostly of seeds, but they
were so broken up as to defy recognition. A little fruit pulp and a little mast
were also found.
Among the stomachs of the bush tits examined were those of one brood of
eight nestlings about 10 days old. The vegetable matter in these stomachs was
only three-fourths of 1 per cent and consisted of one seed and some rubbish.
The animal matter was made up of beetles, wasps, bugs, caterpillars and pupa,
and spiders: The greatest interest lies in the fact that every one of these stom-
achs contained pup of the codling moth, on an average of over five to each.
The oak tree in which these birds were found was in a belt of timber near a
neglected orchard which the parent birds used as a foraging ground, and they
did their best to remedy the neglect of the owner. As feeding and digestion
in the case of nestling birds is almost continuous during the hours of daylight,
the above record would be several times repeated during a day’s feeding. There
were probably not less than a
dozen nests of the bush tit along
the border of this orchard, and
these birds must have exerted a
great restrictive influence upon the.
increase of the codling moth, as
well as of other insects in that
vicinity.
THE WRENS.
The diminutive house wren™
(fig. 4) frequents barns and gar-
dens, and particularly old orchards
in. which the trees are partially
decayed. He makes his nest in a
hollow where perhaps a wood-
pecker had a domicile the year
before, but he is a pugnacious char-
acter, and if he happens to fancy
one of the boxes put up for blue-
birds, he does not hesitate to take it. He is usually not slow to avail himself
of boxes, gourds, tin cans, or empty jars placed for his accommodation.
_In food habits the house wren is entirely beneficial. He may be said to
live upon animal food alone, for an examination of 88 stomachs showed that
98 per cent of the contents was made up of insects or their allies, and only 2
per cent was vegetable food, including bits of grass and similar matter, evi-
dently taken by accident with the insects. Half of this food consisted of
grasshoppers and beetles; the remainder of caterpillars, bugs, and spiders.
As the wren ig a prolific breeder, frequently rearing in a season from 12 to 16
young, a family of these birds must cause considerable reduction in the number
of insects in a garden. Wrens are industrious foragers, searching every tree,
shrub, and vine for caterpillars, and examining every post and rail of the fence
and every cranny in the wall for insects or spiders.
The house wren is only one of a numerous group of small birds of similar
habits. There are within the limits of the United States 28 species and sub-
species of wrens, occupying more or less completely the whole country from
the Atlantic to the Pacific. With the exception of the marsh wrens,” they all
appear to prefer some cosy nook for a nesting site, and, as it happens, the
-farm buildings afford just the place desired. This has led several of the wrens
to seek out the habitations of man, and he is benefited by their destruction of
noxious insects. Wrens have rarely been accused of harm, and their presence
should be encouraged about every farm, ranch, village, or suburban residence.
Fig. 4.House wren. Length, about 43 inches.
2 Troglodytes aédon. 18 Telmatodytes palustris and Cistotherus stellaris.
;
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. ui
BROWN THRASHER.
__ The brown thrasher”™ (fig. 5) breeds throughout the United States east of the
Great Plains, and winters in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. It visits
the garden or orchard, its nest, however, being in dense shrubbery or groves.
The thrasher’s favorite time for singing is in early morning, when, perched
on the top of a bush or tree, it gives an exhibition of vocal powers which
would do credit to the mockingbird.
Indeed, in the South, where the lat-
ter bird is abundant, the thrasher is
known as the sandy mocker.
The food of the brown thrasher
consists of both fruit and insects.
An examination of 636 stomachs
showed 59 per cent of vegetable and
41 per cent of animal food, practi-
cally all insects, and mostly taken in
spring before fruit was ripe. Half
the insects were beetles and the re-
mainder chiefly grasshoppers, cater-
Pillars, bugs, and spiders. A few
predacious beetles were eaten, but on
the whole the work of the species aS = #6. 5.—Brown thrasher. Length, about
an insect destroyer may be consid- 11 inches.
ered beneficial. : .
Eight per cent of its food is made up of fruits like raspberries and currants
which are or may be cultivated, but the raspberries at least are as likely to
belong to wild as to cultivated varieties. Grain, made up mostly of scattered
kernels of oats and corn, is merely a trifle, amounting to only 3 per Gene
Though some of the corn may be taken from newly planted fields, it is amply
paid for by the destruction of May beetles which are eaten at the same time.
The rest of the food consists of wild fruit or seeds. Taken all in all, the ae
thrasher is a useful bird, and probably does as good work in its secluceé
t
retr i rden, for the swamps and groves are no doub
Cia era : the breeding grounds of many 1in-
sects that migrate thence to attack
the crops of the farmer.
CATBIRD.
The catbird™ (fig. 6), like the
thrasher, is a lover of thickets and
delights to make its home in 4 tangle
of wild grapevines, greenbriers, and
shrubs, where it is safe from attack
and can find its favorite food in
abundance. It is found throughout
the United States west to the Rocky
Mountains, and extends also from
Washington, Idaho, and Utah north-
v RAN ale ward into the Provinces of Canada.
a, oe It winters in the Southern States,
Fig. 6—Catbird. Length, about 9 inches. Cuba, Mexico, and Central Amer-
ica. :
i ird i times a
indicate that the eatbird is some ;
‘The Tensor for such reports may possibly
: F i rd so
be found in the fact that on the prairies fruit-bearing a eae seoaee ene
large a part of this bird’s food, are conspicuously las " vineyards, and small-
of this region comes an extensive planting of orchar - the catbird as well
fruit gardens, which furnish shelter and nesting sites. nerease in the numbers
as for other species. There is in consequence a panclte f native fruits upon
of the birds, but no corresponding gain in the supply 0
Reports from the Mississippi Valle
Serious annoyance to fruit growers.
16 Dumetella carolinensis.
158 Toxostoma rufum. D
23627°—23——_2
8. Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
which they were accustomed to feed. Under these circumstances what is more
natural than for the birds to turn to cultivated fruit for their food. The
remedy is obvious: Cultivated fruits can be protected by the simple expedient
of planting the wild species which are preferred by the ‘birds. Some experi-
ments with catbirds in captivity show that the Russian mulberry is preferred
to any cultivated fruit.
The stomachs of 645 catbirds were examined and found to contain 44 per
cent of animal (insect) and 56 per cent of vegetable food. Ants, beetles, cater-
pillars, and grasshoppers constitute three-fourths of the animal food, the re-
mainder being made up of bugs, miscellaneous insects, and spiders. One-third
of the vegetable food consists of cultivated fruits, or those which may be
cultivated, as strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries; but while we debit
the bird with the whole of this, it is probable—and in the eastern and well-
wooded part of the country almost certain—that a large part is obtained from
wild vines. The rest of the vegetable matter is mostly wild fruit, as cherries,
dogwood, sour gum, elderberries, greenbrier, spiceberries, black alder, sumac,
and poison ivy. Although the catbird sometimes does considerable harm by
destroying small fruit, it can not on the whole be considered injurious. On
the contrary, in most parts of the
country it does far more good than
harm.
THE SWALLOWS.
Seven common species of swal-
lows are found within the limits of
the United States, four of which
have abandoned to some extent their
primitive nesting habits and have
attached themselves to the abodes
of man.
In the eastern part of the country
the barn swallow” (fig. 7) now
builds exclusively under roofs, hav-
ing entirely abandoned the rock
eaves and cliffs in which it for-
merly nested. More recently the
cliff swallow™ has found a better
nesting site under the eaves of
buildings than was afforded by the
Fic. 7.—Barn swallow. Length, about 7inches. overhanging cliffs of earth or stone
which it once used and to which it
still resorts occasionally in the East and habitually in the unsettled West. The
martin * and the white-bellied, or tree, swallow” nest either in houses supplied
for the purpose, in abandoned nests of woodpeckers, or in natural crannies
in rocks. The northern violet-green swallow,” the rough-winged swallow,” and
the bank swallow * still live in practically such places as their ancestors chose.
Field observation convinces an ordinarily attentive person that the food of
swallows must consist of the smaller insects captured in mid-air or picked from
the tops of tall grass or weeds. This observation is borne out by an examina-
tion of stomachs, which shows that the food is made up of many small species
of beetles which are much on the wing; many species of flies, together with
large quantities of flying ants; and a few insects of similar kinds. Most of
these are either injurious or annoying, and the numbers destroyed by swallows
are not only beyond calculation but almost beyond imagination.
Unlike many other groups of birds, the six species of swallows found in the
Fastern States extend in a practically unchanged form across the continent,
where they are reinforced by the northern, or Pacific-coast, violet-green swallow.
It is a mistake to tear down from the eaves of a barn the nests of a colony of
cliff swallows, for so far from disfiguring a building they make a picturesque
addition to it, and the presence of swallows should be encouraged by every
7 Hirundo crythrogastra,. = Tachycineta thalassina,
4% Petrochclidon lunifrons. 22 Ntelgidopteryx serripennis,
” Progne subis, 3 Riparia riparia.
20 Tridoprocne bicolor.
a
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 9
device. It is said that cliff and barn swallows may be induced to build their
nests in a particular locality, otherwise suitable, by providing a quantity of
mud to be used by them as mortar. Barn swallows may also be encouraged by
cutting a small hole in the gable of the barn, while martins and white-bellied
swallows will be grateful for boxes like those for the bluebird, but placed in a
higher situation.
TOWHEE.
The towhee, chewink, or ground robin™ (fig. 8), as it is variously known,
inhabits nearly the whole of the United States east of the Great Plains. It
“ breeds from the Middle States northward and winters in the southern half of
the country. Naturally associated with the catbird and brown thrasher, it
lives in much the same places, though it is more given to haunting hedgerows
along roads and fences. After snow has disappeared in early spring an investi-
gation of the rustling so often
heard among the leaves near a
fence or in a thicket will fre-
quently disclose a towhee hard at
work scratching for his dinner
after the manner of a hen; and
in these places and along the sunny
border of woods old leaves will be
found overturned where the bird
has been searching for hibernating
beetles and larve. The good which
the towhee does in this way can
hardly be overestimated, since the
death of a single insect at this 5 ;
time, before it has had an opportu- Fie. 8.—Towhee. Length, about 8 inches.
aed to deposit its eggs, is pe leaked
ent to the destruction of a hos A , eee
later in the year. The towhee has also been credited with visiting nee
fields and feeding upon the potato beetle. Its vegetable food aie
of seeds and small wild fruits, but no complaint on this score is ee
to have been made. So for as observation goes, the bird never bees ac
cultivated fruit or grain; in fact, it is too shy and retiring even to stay
gardens for any length of time.
THE SPARROWS.”
Sparrows are not obtrusive birds, either in plumage, song, or action. There
are some 40 species, with nearly as many : ali roe So aan
more than half a dozen forms are generally known 1 hey distributed that there
species are more or less migratory, but so widely are t
is probably no part of the country where some can not be found throughout the
year.
While sparrows are noted seed eaters, they do not by Se saalis aes
themselves to a vegetable diet. During the summer, ae eee upon the
breeding season, they eat many insects and feed their ares song sparrow2®
same food. Examination of stomachs of three pS ate See shang one
(fig. 9), chipping sparrow,”7 and field sparrow*® (fig. 10)——s suclons beetles; a8
third of the food consists of insects, comprising maner Teng Gee eatery AD
Spout beetles or weevils, and leaf beetles. Many grasshopp
ippi i m one-eighth of the food.
the case of the chipping sparrow these nes a Bee bed Georg
Gras ould seem to be rather larg a er
Guanes ee io the smaller species; indeed, the ereiites! ana ye ane
cent) is eaten in June, when the larger species are still young
ipii s i the English,
=the Ce tere meni are all native species. ee atl depreda-
or house, sparrow (Passer domesticus). DCW ANE or! Genithology. in, 189. Wor infor:
; i i NO. Lr Te apa : letin 493, e
Meeen ah ieee A tine the English spar a uaa Bul
English Sparrow as a Pest, by Ned Dearborn, ?
Melospiza melodia.
7 Spizella passerina.
8 Spizella pusilla,
c
10 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
most numerous. Besides the insects already mentioned, many wasps and bugs
are taken. Predacious and parasitic hymenopterous insects and predacious
beetles, all useful, are eaten only to a slight extent, so that as a whole the insect
diet of the native sparrows may be considered beneficial. There are several
records of potato-bug larvee eaten by chipping sparrows.
Their vegetable food is limited al-
most exclusively to hard seeds. This
might seem to indicate that the birds
feed to some extent upon grain, but
the stomachs examined show only one
kind, oats, and but little of that. The
great bulk of the food is made up of
grass and weed seeds, which form al-
most the entire diet during winter, and
the amount consumed is immense.
In the agricultural region of the
upper Mississippi Valley, by roadsides,
on borders of cultivated fields, or in
: abandoned fields, wherever they can ob-
Y oe tain a foothold, masses of rank weeds
Fic. 9.—Song sparrow. Length, about spring up and often form almost im-
Ga inches. penetrable thickets which afford food
and shelter for immense numbers of
birds and enable them to withstand great cold and the most terrible blizzards. A
person visiting one of these weed patches on a sunny morning in January, when
the thermometer is 20° or more below zero, will be struck with the life and
animation of the busy little inhabitants, Instead of sitting forlorn and half
frozen, they may be seen flitting from branch to branch, twittering and
fluttering, and showing every evidence of enjoyment and perfect comfort. If
one of them is captured it will be found in excellent condition; in fact, a
veritable ball of fat.
The snowhird” and tree sparrow” are perhaps the most numerous of all the
sparrows. Jixamination of many stomachs shows that in winter the tree spar-
row feeds entirely upon seeds of weeds.
Probably each bird consumes about
one-fourth of an ounce a day. In an
article contributed in 1881 to the New
York Tribune the writer estimated the
aunount of weed seed annually de-
stroyed by these birds in Iowa. On
the basis of one-fourth of an ounce
of seed eaten daily by each bird, and
an average of 10 birds to each square
mile, remaining in their winter range
200 days, there would be a total of
1,750,000 pounds, or 875 tons of weed
seed consumed in a single season by
this one species, Large as are these
figures, they unquestionably fall far
short of the reality. The estimate of
10 birds to a square mile is very con-
servative, for in Massachusetts, where
the food supply is less than in the
Western States, the tree sparrow is
even more abundant than this in win-
ter. The writer has known places in
Tia. 10.—Field s row. Length, about
Jowa where several thousand tree spar- : Ba ncneal Co
rows could be seen within the space of a
few acres. This estimate, moreover, is for a single species, while, as a matter of
fact, there are at least half a dozen birds (not all sparrows) that habitually
feed during winter on these seeds. Farther south the tree sparrow is replaced
in winter by the white-throated sparrow,” the white-crowned sparrow, the fox
» Juneo hyemalis. S| Zonotrichia albicollis.
3° Spizella monticola. 8 Zonotrichia leucophrys,
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 11
sparrow,” the song sparrow, the field sparrow, and several others; so that all
over the land a vast number of these seed eaters are at work during the colder
months reducing next year’s crop of worse than useless plants.
HOUSE FINCH.
Of all the sparrow groups, there is probably no member, unless it be the
exotic form known as the English sparrow,” that has by reason of its food
habits called down so many maledictions upon its head as the house finch,”
red head, or linnet, as it igs variously called. This bird, like the other mem-
bers of its family, is by nature a seed eater, and before the beginning of fruit
raising in California probably subsisted upon the seeds of weeds, with an occa-
sional taste of some wild berry. Now, however, when orchards have extended
throughout the length and breadth of the State and every month from May to
December sees some ripening fruit, the linnets take their share. As their
number is legion, the sum total of the fruit that they destroy is more than the
fruit raiser can well spare. As the bird has a stout beak, it has no difficulty
in breaking the skin of the hardest fruit and feasting upon the pulp, thereby
spoiling the fruit and giving weaker-billed birds a chance to sample and acquire
a taste for what they might not otherwise have molested. Complaints against
this bird have been many and loud, more especially in the years when fruit
crops first came to be-an important factor in the prosperity of the Pacific coast.
At that time the various fruits afforded the linnets a new and easily obtained
food, while cultivation had reduced their formerly abundant supply of weed
seed. When the early fruit growers saw their expected golden harvest sud-
denly snatched away or at least much reduced in value by the little marauders,
it is no wonder that they were exasperated and wished to destroy the authors
of the mischief. ; :
_ In order to test the matter thoroughly and ascertain whether these birds
* ate any other kind of food that might to some extent offset the damage inflicted
‘upon the fruit, the horticulturists and ornithologists of California were re-
quested to secure a number of the stomachs of these birds and send them to the
Biological Survey. An agent was also sent to the fruit-raising sections, who
watched the birds in the orchards and collected a number of them. In this
way 1,206 stomachs were obtained and carefully examined, and the result shows
that animal food (insects) constituted 2.44 per cent and vegetable food 97.56
per cent of the stomach contents, not counting gravel.
So small a proportion of animal food can not. of course, mean a great
destruction of insects. As these stomachs were collected in every month, with
the greater number taken during the summer, it is evident that whatever good
one may expect from the linnet must not be looked for in this direction.
Unlike most of the sparrow family, the linnet does not feed its young upon
insects to any great extent. The contents of the stomachs of a number of
nestlings were carefully examined, and the only animal food was sued be
consist of wooly plant lice. These also constituted the great bulk of the
animal food eaten by adults. j Aare z :
The vegetable faa of the species consists of three principal items—srain,
fruit, and weed seeds. Grain amounts to less than 1} per cent in August, a
is the month of greatest consumption, and the average for the year Is a os e
more than one-fourth of 1 per cent. Fruit attains its maximum In ba hea per,
when it amounts to 27 per cent of the whole food, but the average oe : pee
is only 10 per cent. The seeds of weeds constitute the bulk of he gd 0 ae
linnet, and in August, the month of least consumption, amount to apou
ber cent af ine fond, he average for the year is SG perqaul .. way Be
From the foregoing it is evident that whatever the linnet’s sins ay. :
grain eating is not one of them. In view of the great complaint tere oi ok
its fruit-eating habits, the small quantity found in the stomachs taken 1s ome
what of a surprise. But it must be remembered that the stomach elelegestie
not tell the whole story. When a bird takes a single peck sig ha : “ ed a
apricot, it spoils the whole fruit, and in this way may ruin
i i i he fruit pulp found in the stomach
fas ee ee negrpete ee hat is amie destroyed. That
does not represent more than ne ee see early fruits. especially cherries
i i d voracious eaters :
aoe De ate ontaee in California will pear testimony. That the
and apricots, every frui
% Passer domesticus.
88 iliaca.
ee arpodacus mesicanus frontalis.
12 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
damage is often serious no one will deny. It is noticeable, however, that the
earliest varieties are the ones most affected; also, that in large orchards the
damage is not perceptible, while in small plantations the whole crop is fre
quently destroyed.
THE GRACKLES.
The crow blackbird or grackle® (fig. 11) in one or more of its subspecies is a
familiar object in all the States east of the Rocky Mountains. Throughout
the year it is resident as far north as southern Illinois, and in summer extends
its range into the Canadian Provinces. In the Mississippi Valley it is one of
the most abundant of birds, preferring to nest in the artificial groves and
windbreaks near farms instead of in the natural “timber” which it formerly
used. It breeds also in parks and near buildings, often in considerable colonies.
Farther east, in New England, it is only locally abundant, though frequently
seen in migration. In the latter days of August and throughout September it
is found in immense numbers before moving southward.
The grackle is accused of many sins, such as stealing grain and fruit and
robbing the nests of other birds. An examination of 2,346 stomachs shows
that nearly one-third of its food consists of insects, most of. which are injurious.
The bird also eats a few snails, crawfishes, salamanders, small fish, and occa-
sionally a mouse. The stomach contents do not indicate that it robs other
birds’ nests to any great extent, as
remains of birds and birds’ eggs
amount to less than half of 1
per cent.
It is on account of its vegetable
food that the grackle most deserves
condemnation. Grain is eaten dur-
ing the whole year, and only for
a short time in summer is other
food attractive enough to induce
the bird to alter its diet. The
grain taken in winter and spring
probably consists of waste kernels
from stubble. The stomachs do not
indicate that the bird pulls sprout-
ing grain; but the wheat eaten in
July and August and the corn eaten
in the fall are probably from fields
of standing grain. The _ total
amount of grain consumed during
the year constitutes 45 per cent of the food, but it is safe to say that at least
half is waste grain and consequently of no value. Although the crow black-
bird eats a few cherries and blackberries in their season, and in the fall some
wild fruit, it apparently does no damage in this way.
Large flocks of grackles no doubt do considerable injury to grain crops, and
there seems to be no remedy, except the destruction of the birds, which is in
itself expensive. During the breeding season, however, the species does much
good by eating insects and by feeding them to its young, which are reared
almost entirely upon this food. The bird does the greatest amount of good in
spring, when it follows the plow in search of large grubworms, of which it is
so fond that it sometimes literally crams its stomach full of them.
BREWER BLACKBIRD.
Fic. 11.—Purple grackle. Length, about 12
inches.
The Brewer blackbird™ takes the place in the Western States of the grackle,
or crow blackbird, which lives in the Mississippi Valley and farther east and is
very similar in appearance and habits. It breeds east to the Great Plains and
north into Canada, and winters over most of its breeding range in the United
States and south to Guatemala. At home in fields, meadows, and orchards, and
about ranch buildings and cultivated lands generally, it nests in bushes and
weeds, sometimes in trees, and is very gregarious, especially about barnyards
and corrals. The bird feeds freely in stockyards and in cultivated fields, and
when fruit is ripe does not hesitate to take a share. During the cherry season
© Quiscalus quisoula, 37 Huphagus cyanocephatus. :
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 13
in California the birds are much in the orchards. In one case they were
observed feeding on cherries, but when a neighboring fruit grower began to
plow his orchard almost every blackbird in the vicinity was upon the newly
opened ground close after the plowman’s heels in its eagerness to secure the
insects turned up.
The laboratory investigation of this bird’s food covered 312 stomachs, col-
lected in every month and representing especially the fruit and grain sections
of southern California. The animal portion of the food was 32 per cent and
the vegetable 68 per cent.
Caterpillars and their pups amounted to 12 per cent of the whole food and
were eaten every month. They include many of those pests known as cutworms.
The cotton-boll worm, or corn-ear worm, was identified in at least 10 stomachs,
and in 11 were found pup of the codling moth. The animal food also included
other insects, and spiders, sow bugs, snails, and eggshells.
The vegetable food may be divided into fruit, grain, and weed seeds. Fruit
was eaten in May, June, and July, not a trace appearing in any other month,
‘and was composed of cherries, or what was thought to be such, strawberries,
blackberries or raspberries, and fruit pulp or skins not further identified.
However, the amount, a little more than 4 per cent for the year, was too small
to make a bad showing, and if the bird does no greater harm than is involved
in its fruit eating it is well worth protecting. Grain amounts to 54 per cent
of the yearly food and forms a considerable percentage in each month; oats
are the favorite and were the sole contents of 14 stomachs, and wheat of 2, but
no stomach was completely filled with any other grain. Weed seeds, eaten in
every month to the extent of 9 per cent of the food, were found in rather small
quantities and irregularly, and appear to have been merely a makeshift.
Stomachs of nestlings, varying in age from 24 hours to some that were nearly
fledged, were found to contain 89 per cent animal to 11 per cent vegetable mat-
ter. The largest items in the former
were caterpillars, grasshoppers, and
spiders. In the latter the largest
items were fruit, probably cherries ;
grain, mostly oats; and rubbish.
BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
Brilliancy of plumage, sweetness
of song, and food habits to which no
exception can be taken are some of
the striking characteristics of the
Baltimore oriole ® (fig. 12). In sum-
mer it is found throughout the north- Le:
ern half of the United States east of Fic. 12.—Baltimore oriole. Length, about
fhe Great Plains. Its nest commands 74 inches.
ardly less admiration than the - .
beauty of its plumage or the excellence of its song. Hanging ee ined
the outermost bough of a stately elm, it eras cas ee
and so strongly fastened as to bid defiance to the € . : .
Observation both in the field and laboratory shows that Edam eaacgs |
tute the largest item of the fare of the oriole. In 204 stomachs pELeN ail the
per cent of the food, and they are eaten in varying quantities h u a progres
months in which the bird remains in this country. The fewes : pected re
July, when a little fruit also is taken. The other insects consist as a ae ee
ants, wasps, grasshoppers, and some spiders. The beetles are Plt. ty ond
beetles, the larvee of which are among the most destructive 1nsee :
as " put so small and
the bugs include plant and bark lice, bech very eotaaene are eaten mostly
obscure as to be passed over unnoticed by most birds. ; Beli
in spring, piiaatiopuens in July and August, and wasps and spiders with
side larity throughout the season.
oe the BELAY SE the orate in the United irae ens paneer ate
to only a little more than 16 per cent of its aa pet eT: cating WORE
doing much damage to crops is very limited. Th i 0 cases.
to f Goneidecale Gent, but remmains of such were found in only tw
i omachs.
One writer says that it damages grapes, but none were found in the st
8 Toterus galbula.
14 Parmer Bulletin 630.
BULLOCK ORIOLE.
The Bullock oriole” is practically a counterpart of the Baltimore oriole,
taking the place of that species west of the Plains and throughout the Pacific
coast region. It does not essentially differ in its habits of nesting or in its food
from its eastern relative, but it is less beautiful in plumage. The examination
of 162 stomachs shows that 79 per cent of its food consists of insects, with a few
spiders, a lizard, a mollusk shell, and eggshells. Beetles amounted to 35 per
cent, and all except a few ladybugs were harmful species. Ants were found in
19 stomachs, and in one there was nothing else. Bees, wasps, etc., were in 56
stomachs, and entirely filled 2 of them. Including the ants, they amount to
nearly 15 per cent of the food of the season.
One of the most interesting articles of food in the oriole’s dietary was the
black olive scale, found in 45 stomachs, and amounting to 5 per cent of the
food. In several cases these scales formed 80 per cent or more of the contents,
and in one, 80 individual scales could be counted. They were evidently a
standard article of diet, and were eaten regularly in every month of the oriole’s
stay except April. Hemipterous insects other than scales, eaten quite reg-
ularly, make up a little more than 5 per cent of the food. They were mostly
stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, and tree hoppers. Plant lice were found in one stomach.
Moths, pup, and caterpillars compose the largest item of the oriole’s animal
food; the average consumption during its summer stay is a little more than
41 per cent. Of these, perhaps the most interesting were the pupe and larve
of the codling moth. These were found in 23 stomachs, showing that they are
not an unusual article of diet. No less than 14 of the pupal cases were found
in one stomach, and as they are very fragile many others may have been present,
but broken beyond recognition.
Grasshoppers probably do not come much in the oriole’s way. They were
eaten, however, to the extent of a little more than 8 per cent. But in spite of
the fact that grasshoppers are eaten so sparingly, 2 stomachs, both taken in
June, contained nothing else, and another contained 97 per cent of them.
Various insects and spiders, with a few other items, make up the rest of the
animal food, a little more than 5 per cent. Spiders are not important in the
oriole’s food, but are probably eaten whenever found. They were identified in
44 stomachs, but in small numbers. The scales of a lizard were found in one
stomach and the shell of a snail in another.
The vegetable contingent of the oriole’s food is mostly fruit, especially in
June and July, when it takes kindly to cherries and apricots, and sometimes
eats more than the fruit grower considers a fair share. However, no great
complaint is made against the bird, and it is probable that as a rule it does not
do serious harm. With such a good record as an insect eater it can well be
spared a few cherries.
THE MEADOWLARKS.
_The eastern meadowlark® (fig. 13) is a common and well-known bird occur-
ring from the Atlantic coast to the Great Plains, where it gives way to the
closely related western species,“ which extends thence westward to the Pacific.
It winters from our southern border as far north as the District of Columbia,
southern Illinois, and occasionally Iowa. The western form winters somewhat
farther north. Although it is a bird of the plains, and finds its most congenial
haunts in the prairies of the West, it is at home wherever there is level or
undulating land covered with grass or weeds, with plenty of water at hand.
In the 1,514 stomachs examined, animal food (practically all insects) con-
stituted 74 per cent of the contents and vegetable matter 26 per cent. As would
naturally be supposed, the insects were ground species, as beetles, bugs, grass-
hoppers, and caterpillars, with a few flies, wasps, and spiders. A number of the
stomachs were collected when the ground was covered with snow, but even
these contained a large percentage of insects, showing the bird’s skill in finding
proper food under adverse circumstances.
Of the various insects eaten, crickets and grasshoppers are the most im-
portant, constituting -26 per cent of the food of the year and 72 per cent of the
food in August. It is scarcely necessary to mention the beneficial effect of 2
number of these birds on a field of grass in the height of the grasshopper season.
Of the 1,514 stomachs collected at all seasons of the year, 778, or more than
half, contained remains of grasshoppers, and one was filled with fragments of
®% Toterus bullock. “ Sturnella magna, * “ Sturnella neglecta.
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 15
37 of these insects. This seems to show conclusively that grasshoppers are
preferred, and are eaten whenever they can be found. Especially notable
is the great number taken in August, the month when grasshoppers reach their
maximum abundance; stomach examination shows that large numbers of birds
resort at this time to this diet, no matter what may be the food during the
rest of the year.
Next to grasshoppers, beetles make up the most important item of the
meadowlark’s food, amounting to 25 per cent, about one-half of which are pre-
dacious ground beetles. The others are all harmful species.
Forty-two individuals of different kinds of May beetles were found in the
stomachs of meadowlarks, and there were probably many more which were
past recognition. To this form and several closely allied ones belong the
numerous white grubs, which are among the worst enemies to many cultivated
crops, notably grasses and grains, and to a less extent strawberries and garden
vegetables. In the larval stage they eat the roots of these plants, and being
large, one individual may destroy several plants. In the adult stage they feed
upon the foliage of trees and other plants, and in this way add to the damage
which they began in the earlier form. As these enemies of husbandry are not
easily destroyed by man, it is obviously wise to encourage their natural foes.
Among the weevils found in the stomachs the most important economically
are the cotton-boll weevil and the recently introduced alfalfa weevil of Utah.
Several hundred meadowlarks were taken in the cotton-growing region, and
the boll weevil was found in 25 stomachs of the eastern meadowlark and in 16
of the western species. Of the former, one stomach contained 27 individuals.
Of 25 stomachs of western meadow-
A ff v
Nh
in another 32 adults and 70: larve,
still another had 10 adults and 40
larve, and a fourth had 4 adults
and 100 larve.
Caterpillars form a very constant
element of the food, and in May
constitute over 24 per cent of the
whole. May is the month when the |
dreaded cutworm begins its deadly a Wee
career, and then the lark does some a as
ef its best work. Most of these Fi¢. 13--Mesdowlark. |
caterpillars are ground feeders,
and are overlooked by birds which
habitually frequent eos but the meadowlark finds and devours them
i he insect food is made up of ants, wisps,
by thousands. The remainder of the aera
and spiders, with some bugs, including chinch bugs, i
The vegetable food Sonege of grain and weed and other ee.
in general amounts to 11 per cent and weed and ther situs ot land con.
Grain, principally corn, is eaten mostly in winter an Se a summer and
sists, therefore, of waste kernels; only a trifle is consum in was discovered.
autumn, when it is most plentiful. No trace of SE a whe seeds of
Clover seed was found in only six stomachs, and ne ie a ae aaten’ fron No=
weeds, principally ragweed, barnyard grass, and sma ae replaced by insects.
vember to April, inclusive, but during the rest of the year are replaced by inst
. Briefly stated, more than half of the meadowlark’s food ce sane he eee
insects; its vegetable food is composed either of noxious a ae re spiders:
and the remainder is made u
of useful beetles or neutra t :
A strong point in the pird’s Hae is that, although natur hc ee pres x
is able to subsist on vegetable food, and consequently is no g
in cold weather farther than is necessary to find gr
ound free from snow.
THE RED-WINGED BLACKBIRDS.
i in i i forms (fig. 14) is found
-wi amp blackbird ® in its various wee
Woe ee re. er tee and the region immediately . ee ee -
cone ia age: of its range, its distribution is more or |e ; J
larks taken in alfalfa fields of Utah, i ne er:
15 contained the alfalfa weevil. In i yi Wa Wy
WAAL Y ‘
, Mi WA a
Yi
one stomach 23 adults were found, t f ii 'y
LUN all tha
Atti | fia y uh
a
Length, about 10
42 Agelaius pheniceus.
16 Farmers’ Bulletin 630..
account of its partiality for marshes. It builds its nest over or near standing
water, in tall grass, rushes, or bushes. Owing to this peculiarity the bird may
be absent from large tracts of country which afford no swamps or marshes
suitable for nesting. It usually breeds in large colonies, though single families,
consisting of a male and several females, may sometimes be found in a small
slough, where each female builds her nest and rears her own little brood, while
her liege lord displays his brilliant colors and struts in the sunshine. In the
upper Mississippi Valley the species finds most favorable conditions, for the
countless prairie sloughs and the margins of the numerous shallow lakes afford
nesting sites for thousands of red-wings ; and: here are bred the immense flocks
which sometimes do so much damage to the grain fields of the West. After the
breeding season the birds congregate preparatory to migration, and remain
thus associated throughout the winter.
Three species and several subspecies of red-wings are recognized,“ but practi-
cally no difference exists in the habits of these forms either in nesting or
feeding, except such as may result from local conditions. Most of the forms are
found on the Pacific side of the continent, and may be considered as included in
the following statements as to food and economic status.
Many complaints have been made against the red-wing, and several States
have at times placed a bounty upon its head. It is said to cause great damage
to grain in the West, especially in the upper Mississippi Valley, but few com-
plaints come from the northeast-
ern section, where the bird is much
less abundant than in the West
and South.
Examination of 1,083 stomachs
showed that vegetable matter
forms 74 per cent of the food,
while animal matter, mainly in-
sects, forms but 26 per cent. A
little more than 10 per cent con-
sists of beetles, mostly harmful
species. Weevils, or snout beetles,
amount to 4 per cent of the year’s
food, but in June reach 25 per cent.
As weevils are among the most
harmful insects known, their de
struction should condone some, at
least, of the sins of which the
fe bird is aceused. Grasshoppers
Fig. 14.—Red-winged blackbird. constitute nearly 5 per cent of the
By ae pengeh, ab owe food, while the rest of the animal
matter is made up of various
insects, a few snails, and crus-
taceans. The few dragon flies found were probably picked up dead, for they
are too active to be taken alive, unless by a bird of the flycatcher family. So
far as the insect food as a whole is concerned, the red-wing may be considered
entirely beneficial.
The interest in the vegetable food of this hird centers around grain. Only
three kinds, corn, wheat, and oats, were found in the stomachs in appreciable
quantities. They aggregate but little more than 13 per cent of the whole food,
oats forming nearly half of this amount. Field investigation has shown, how-
ever, that, when local conditions are favorable, large flocks of red-wings may
do considerable damage. Conspicuous among such cases are the losses suffered
by farmers to sweet corn in some of the northeastern States and to milo in the
South and West. _In the rather limited grain-raising area of the Imperial
Valley of California the annual damage to milo alone by enormous flocks of
red-wings and yellow-headed blackbirds has been estimated to be fully $50,000.
The most important item of the bird’s food, however, is weed seed, which forms
practically all _of its food in winter and about 57 per cent of the fare of the
whole year. The principal weed seeds eaten are those of ragweed, barnyard
grass, and smartweed. That these seeds are preferred is shown by the fact
that the hirds begin to eat them in August, when grain is still readily obtainable,
and continue feeding on them even after insects become plentiful in April.
The red-wing eats very little fruit and does practically no harm to garden or
* Agclaius phaniceus (8 forms), Agelaius gubernator, and Agelaius tricolor.
.
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 17
orchard. It is apparent that where moderately abundant, the red-wing does
more good than harm, but in sections where it becomes excessively abundant
a reduction in its numbers is justifiable.
BOBOLINK.
The bobolink, ricebird, or reedbird™ (fig. 15) igs a common summer resident
of the United States, north of about latitude 40°, and from New England west-
ward to the Great Plains, wintering beyond our southern border. In New
England there are few birds about which so much romance clusters as this
rollicking songster, naturally associated with sunny June meadows; but in the
South there are none on whose head so many maledictions have been heaped
on account of its fondness for rice. During its sojourn in the Northern States
it feeds mainly upon insects and
seeds of useless plants; but while
rearing its young, insects constitute
its chief food, and almost the exclu-
sive diet of its brood. After the
young are able to fly, the whole fam-
ily gathers into a small flock and
begins to live almost entirely upon
vegetable food. This consists for
the most part of weed seeds, since
in the North these birds do not ap-
pear to attack grain to any great
extent. They eat a few oats, but their
stomachs do not reveal a great quan-
tity of this or any other grain. As
the season advances they gather into
larger flocks and move southward,
until by the end of August nearly all
have left their breeding grounds. On
their way they frequent the reedy
marshes about the mouths of rivers Fic. 15.—Bobolink, rice bird, or reed bird.
and on the inland waters of the coast Length, about 7 inches.
region and subsist largely upon wild : ‘
es In the Middle Sitar cack their southward migration, they are com-
monly known as reedbirds, and, becoming very fat, are treated as game. we Ge
Formerly, when the low marshy shores of the Carolinas oe pan sts
more southern States were devoted to rice culture the bobolin a Cog wees es
havoe both upon the sprouting rice in spring and upon the ripen ane a sphetl
their return migration in the fall. While the demage is not so great as when
this region was the center of rice production, still it amounts i cee pro-
sands of dollars annually. As a remedy, an open season on ricebir :
vided in the Coast States from New Jersey to Florida.
CROW.
In one or another of its geographic races the common cro eae cae
in great numbers throughout the States east of the Plains an
ile i it i d in California and in
well up into Canada, while in less abundance it is ee 0 ey oy
i ths
the N western States. During the colder months a & :
ove eta hele most of these birds within the borders ce a eae baste
and at about the latitude of Philadelphia and sa eae Ee ot ai agate
congregating nightly in roosts. Farmers dwelling in the
es to shocked corn. _
ee native birds so much concerns me Pik wad ee iene ars 7
Eastern States as the common crow. Many OF our aa ee aie
bird, as its pulling sprouting corn, feeding on ripening ae See at ase
yarious kinds, destroying poultry and wild birds, os i a einer oe
of live stock, were common complaints i ie pean ae ie oe
i , now qui ally ae ae gan
= fe ; aa me nay years. In recent times, toes ane eA
of these Tiohiens: including ie eo Pe cee we ine
i month 0 e year an a 3 fais
oe a much fairer verdict than was formerly possib
5 rT hos.
44 Dolichonysz oryzivorus. & Corvus brachyrhync
18 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
The crow is practically omnivorous. During spring and early summer any
form of insect life seems to make a desirable item in its diet, and in winter
when hard pressed nothing in the animal or vegetable kingdoms which contains
a morsel of nutriment is overlooked.
The insect food of the crow. which comprises about a fifth of its yearly
sustenance, does much to atone for its misdemeanors. Grasshoppers, May
beetles and their larvee (white grubs), caterpillars, weevils, and wireworms
stand out prominently.’ In 1,340 stomachs of adults examined these highly in-
jurious forms comprised over 80 per cent of the insect food. Grasshoppers are
naturally taken in greatest abundance late in the season, September being the
month of largest consumption, when they form about a fifth of the total food.
May beetles and white grubs are eaten in every month, but occur most
prominently in May. In June caterpillars are a favorite food, and weevils of
various kinds are taken in varying quantities throughout summer and fall.
About half of the remaining 20 per cent of insect food is composed of beneficial —
ground beetles, ladybirds, predacious bugs, and parasitic wasps, and related
forms, the rest consisting of neutral or injurious forms. Numerous instances
are on record where fields badly infested with white grubs or grasshoppers
have been favorite resorts of crows, whose voracity has resulted in a material
suppression of the pest. When the amount of food required to sustain the
individual crow is considered, the work of these birds appears all the more
important. Single stomachs con-
taining upward of 50 grasshop-
pers are not uncommon. Thus in
its choice of insect food the crow
ig rendering an important service
to the farmer.
In the other animal food of
the crow are several items of
the utmost economic importance.
Spiders are taken in consider-
able numbers in May and June,
but the yearly total is a little
over 1 per cent of the food.
In early spring crawfish are
eagerly sought, and other aquatic
food, as fish and mollusks, lend
variety to the crow’s bill of
fare the year round. In the con-
sumption of toads, salamanders,
frogs, and some snakes, which together compose a little over 2 per cent of the
yearly food, the crow is doubtless doing harm. Small rodents occurred in the
stomachs collected nearly every month, but it is often difficult to determine
whether small mummals found in birds’ stomachs were taken alive or found dead.
From its carrion-eating habits the crow has been unfairly criticized as a
disseminator of live-stock diseases. While this may be to some extent just, the
fact that there are many other important carriers which lie largely beyond our
control, shows that we must seek final relief only through the strictest methods
of sanitation.
The nest-robbing habit of the crow, long a serious criticism, is verified by
stomach analysis. Of the 1,103 crows examined, 47 had fed on wild birds or
their eggs, and the eggs of domestic fowls were found somewhat more fre
quently. The crow’s habit of rummaging about garbage piles may explain
much of this latter material. :
Of the vegetable food, corn, which is eaten every month, is the most im-
portant item and forms about 88 per cent of the diet. Much of this, however,
must be considered waste, since over 60 per cent of it is consumed from the first
of November to the end of March. During the periods when corn is sprouting
and when in the ‘‘roasting-ear” stage the crow is eating this grain at a rate
considerably less than the yearly average, and the months of smallest consump-
tion are July and August. At times, however, the damage to corn becomes a
serious problem, and were it not possible to make use of such deterrents as coal
tar upon seed corn there would be little friendship for the crow in some sec-
tions of the Hast. The “pulling” of corn is a trait most prevalent in small-
field areas. Wheat and oats suffer similar damage at times, especially in the
Northwestern States, where these grains predominate. About the only safe-
guard to ripening grain is the constant use of powder and shot or the scarecrow.
Fie, 16.—Crow. Length, about 19 inches,
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 19
Various kinds of cultivated fruits are also eaten, and local damage to such
crops as apples, melons, peas, beans, peanuts, and almonds is occasionally re-
ported. In long, rigorous winters, the crow. like other birds, resorts to the
fruit of numerous wild plants, as dogwood, sour gum, hackberry, smilax, and the
several species of sumac and poison ivy.
Damage to the eggs of poultry may be reduced to a minimum by careful
housing of laying hens, and the farmer can protect his sprouting grain to a
large extent by the use of tar-coated seed. It will be well also to keep the
crow within reasonable numbers on game preserves and public parks where it
is desired to encourage the nesting of smaller birds. While legal protection is
not needed for so wary an individual as the crow, it seems well, where local
conditions have not aggravated some particular shortcomings of the bird, to
allow it to continue the good services rendered to man in the destruction of
noxious insects.
BLUE JAY.
The blue jay “ (fig. 17) is a conspicuous member of our bird population east
of the Plains, especially in autumn when his brilliant plumage contrasts vividly
with the brown: foliage. Even in winter he stays with us, though at this time
he is less common along our northern border. In spring and summer, while by
no means uncommon, the blue jay is not so often noticed, as the retiring disposi-
tion which he assumes during the breeding season assists in protecting him
from enemies. This also allows him to carry on with considerable impunity
that inglorious practice of nest rob-
bing of which, in a measure, he has
been rightfully accused.
Examination of 580 stomachs col-
lected at all times of the year in 30
of our Eastern States and Canada
shows .that. insects comprise about
22 per cent of the yearly sustenance.
About three-fourths of these are in- vy
jurious, the remainder being neutral - “AAs
or beneficial. Of the injurious in- #43
sects, grasshoppers form the largest
portion; in August nearly a fifth of
the food. Caterpillars are conspicu- ;
ous in July and August and at this Fic. 17.—Blue jay.
ting average about a tenth of the inch
stomach contents. Both laboratory ‘ . .
investigations and field observations have established the fact that ee pees
eggs of the tent caterpillar and the hibernating larve of the ea ies al ee
New England are eagerly sought. Scarabzeid beetles sony a iC : Of the
the yearly food, and click beetles and wire-worms about 1 per scl part
beneficial forms, ground beetles (3 per cent) and Us aan ieee a few other
of which are parasitic (2.5 per cent), are taken m Ost tee aes are eaten
invertebrates, as spiders, millepeds, mollusks, and crustaceans, a's
throughout the year. tay we. ar ronted
In the cotinideration of the vertebrate food of ee ee a pa baa
with the problem of the destruction of wild birds terial in the stomachs,
i *h ma
search was made for every possible trace of such © :
and in 6 of the 530 were fond the remains of wild bir ds or their eggs. D
2 aaa i 7 P ed a
February two jays had killed a small bird apiece; 1m May one had robb
i i a a clutch of eggs, respec-
nest of eggs; in June two had taken a small bird ie ae
tively; and in August another had robbed a nest. : “ait t Wipala
peak to Be mat prenounced during its own breeding Sone a eee m ae
for many birds which have suffered from its boldness eur us Bite eae
another brood unmolested. Thirty-nine of the 530 jay aa Lean gee
on hen’s eggs. Much of this food, however, was picked o a gut pe ayuile
to which the jay, like other members of the crow Ge he se atu
the result of stomach analysis would appear to ae nt Seat a
jay, it is doubtless quite characteristic of the bird un a io yn ie
Complaint that the jay is the source of neuer ae Fy Rualeces
fall has been verified to a certain degree by stomach e>
Length, about 11%
nches.
48 Cyanocitta cristata.
20 ; Farmers’ Bulletin 630. -
is taken in every month of the year, but in greater quantities during winter and
early spring, when much of it is necessarily waste, and it forms about 18 per
cent of the yearly food. Cultivated fruits of various kinds are eaten from
June to the end of the year, and the 15 per cent taken in July apparently justifies
complaints: against the bird on this score. The favorite vegetable food of the
blue jay is mast of various kinds, acorns predominating, but beechnuts, chest-
nuts, chinquaquins, and hazelnuts also are relished. This food is important in
every month but July and August, the yearly average being over 43 per cent,
and from October to March it constitutes about two-thirds of the diet. Occa-
sionally harm is done by feeding also on cultivated nuts, as pecans. Wild fruits
are eaten during the summer and fall and constitute about 7 per cent of the
yearly sustenance.
The blue jay probably renders its best services to man in destroying grass-
hoppers late in the season and in feeding on hibernating insects and their eggs,
as it does in the case of the tent caterpillar and brown-tail moth. Such forest
insects as buprestid beetles and weevils of various kinds also fall as its prey.
The blue jay’s vegetable food, with the exception of some cultivated fruit and
corn in the fall, is largely neutral. The severest criticism against the species
is the destruction of other birds and their eggs. Where we wish to attract birds
in large numbers about our dooryards, in our parks, and in game preserves, it
will be well not to allow the jays to become too abundant.
PACIFIC COAST JAYS.
In California and adjacent States two species of jays are much in evidence
under several more or less well-marked forms.
The Steller jay “ much resembles the eastern bird, but it is more shy and
retiring and seldom visits the orchard or vicinity of the ranch buildings.
Stomach examination shows that its food does not radically differ from that of
the eastern blue jay. As is the case with that bird, a very considerable part
of the food consists of mast, together with a little fruit and some insects. The
insects are largely wasps, with some beetles and grasshoppers. This jay also
eats some grain, which is probably waste or volunteer. No complaints, so far
as known, are made against this bird. Until it shall become less wary it is not
likely to trespass to a serious extent upon the farmer’s preserve.
The California jay,“ although of a different genus, more nearly resembles its
eastern relative in food habits and actions. It freely visits the stockyards near
ranch buildings, and orchards and gardens. As a fruit stealer it is notorious.
One instance is recorded where seven jays were shot from a prune tree, one
after the other, the dead bodies being left under the tree until all were killed.
So eager were the birds to get the fruit that the report of the gun and the sight
of their dead did not deter them from coming to the tree. In orchards in
canyons or on hillsides adjacent to chaparral or other cover great mischief is
done by this bird. In one such case an orchard was under observation at a time
when the prune crop was ripening, and jays in a continuous stream were seen
to come down a small ravine to the orchard, prey upon the fruit, and return.
Fruit stealing, however, is only one of the sins of the California jay. That
it robs hens’ nests is universal testimony. A case is reported of a hen having
a nest under a clump of bushes; every day a jay came to a tree a few rods away,
and when it heard the cackle of the hen announcing a new egg it flew at once
to the nest. At the same time the mistress of the house hastened to the spot
to secure the prize, but in most cases the jay won the race. This is only one of
many similar cases recounted. The jays have learned just what the cackle of
the hen means. Another case more serious is that related by a man engaged
in raising white leghorn fowls on a ranch several miles up a canyon. He
stated that when the chicks were very young the jays attacked and killed
them by a few blows of the beak and then pecked open the skull and ate out
the brains. In spite of all efforts to protect the chicks and kill the jays the
losses in this way were serious.
Examination of the stomachs of 826 California jays shows that 27 per cent
of the contents for the year consists of animal matter and 73 per cent of vege-
table, Although the great bulk of the animal food is made up of insects, the
remains of eggshells and birds’ bones appear much too often. The insect food
is fairly well distributed among the more common orders, but grasshoppers are
4 Cyanocitta stellert. , SAphelocoma californica.
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 21
slightly the most numerous and constitute 4.5 per cent of the year’s food. In
July, August, and September, however, the amount is 14, 18, and 19 per cent,
respectively. Four per cent of the food consists of wasps, bees, etc., but in the
three months named they constitute 15, 7, and 9 per cent, respectively. A
worker honeybee found in each of two stomachs is rather surprising, for it is
unusual to find a bird like the jay eating these active and elusive insects,
which enter into the diet of the flycatchers. The remainder of the insect
food is pretty evenly distributed among beetles, bugs, flies, and caterpillars.
Eggshells were found in 21 stomachs and birds’ bones in 5. Six stomachs
contained the bones of mammals and two those of a lizard. No bird has a
worse reputation for nest robbing than has the eastern jay, and yet of 530
stomachs of the eastern species only 6 contained eggshells or the bones of
birds. This comparison serves to show what a marauder and nest thief the
California jay really is.
In its vegetable diet this bird much resembles its eastern relative, the most
remarkable difference being in the matter of fruit eating. With greater oppor-
tunities the California bird has developed a greater appetite for fruit and
indulges it to the fullest extent. -Remains of fruit were found in 220 of the 326
stomachs. The percentage for the year is only 16, but for the four months of
June, July, August, and September it is 44, 33, 53, and 25, respectively. Cher-
ries, apricots, and prunes are the favorites among cultivated fruits, and elder-
berries are relished to some extent. Grain, which was found in 48 stomachs,
amounts to 6 per cent of the food of the year. Practically all of it was taken
in the four months above mentioned, but it is not probable that much damage
is done by the jay in this respect. The major portion of the grain was oats.
What was not wild was probably simply scattered grain gleaned after the
harvest. Mast is eaten by the California jay from September to March, inclu-
sive, and constitutes during most of that period one of the principal elements of
its food. In this respect the bird shows a remarkable similarity to the eastern
species. A few weed seeds and other miscellaneous items make up the balance
of the vegetable food.
In summing up from an economic point of view the character of the food
of the California jay, it must be conceded that it is not all that could be wished.
Its taste for birds’ eggs and fruit is entirely too pronounced, and at present the
species is superabundant in California. While the natural food supply of the
bird has been lessened by bringing the woods and prushy canyons under cultiva-
tion, the same areas have been planted to fruit, and naturally the jay att
the fruit as an acceptable substitute. A considerable reduction of the bird’s
numbers would appear to be the only effective remedy.
THE PHGBES.
i i i re wel-
Among the early spring arrivals to their northern homes none is mo
come fea the Ties (fg. 18). The common phoebe” breeds throughout the
United States east of the Great Plains, and winters from the South aaa
i hoebe
and Gulf States southward. Its western relative, the black p : 1
from Texas west to the Pacific coast, which it occupies as a pee
ington, replacing through most of this region the common or 2
Though naturally building Its nest under am or Pater species Tor the
St ee TT chat in the more thickly settled parts
vicinity of farm buildings is so marked D
of the cannery the bird a seldom seen at any great distance ce =" pasorag s
except where a bridge spanning a stream affords a secure eae ere
confiding disposition renders it a great favorite, and conseq y
disturbed. ; ; ?
The phoebe subsists almost exclusively upon insec =
upon the wing. An examination of 370 stomachs Ss au
of the year’s food consists of insects and spiders, W
the remainder. The insects belong chiefly to noxious _ aa ee ig ot tamales
Click beetles, May beetles. and weevils. Other beetles, be : Lge ie eee
that were identified. make up 10.65 per cent. They appe hoe eee |
regularly in every month, put the most are taken in Pee Be ie:
May. is the month of maximum consumption, with 20. a ue a
gether amount to 15.3 per cent, which places them second In
most of which are caught
ed that over 89 per cent
le wild fruit constitutes
50 is nigricans.
4 Sayornis phebe. Sayornis ng
99 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
of animal food. The notorious cotton-boll weevil was found in six stomachs
taken in the cotton fields of Texas and Louisiana, and five individuals of the
strawberry weevil were taken from one collected in Texas. Many other beetles
contained in the stomachs are equally harmful, but are not so widely known.
Such are the corn leaf-beetle, which feeds upon corn; the 12-spotted cucum-
ber beetle, and the striped cucumber beetle, both of which seriously injure and
sometimes destroy cucumber and squash vines; and the locust leaf miner,
which is sometimes so numerous that all the locust trees over large areas are
blasted as by fire.
In the phcebe’s diet hymenopterous insects stand at- the head, as is the case
with most of the flycatchers. They are eaten with great regularity and are
the largest item in nearly every month. A few are useful parasitic species,
but these are offset by a number of sawfly larve, which are very harmful
insects. Ants were found in 24 stomachs. No honeybees were identified. In
their season grasshoppers are much relished, while wasps of various forms,
many flies of species that annoy cattle, and a few bugs and spiders are also
eaten regularly. It is evident that a pair of phebes must materially reduce
the number of insects near a garden or field, as the birds often, if not always,
raise two broods a year, and each brood numbers from four to six young.
There is hardly a more useful species about the farm than the pheebe, and
it should receive every encouragement. To furnish nesting boxes is helpful,
but not necessary, as it usually prefers a more open situation, like a shed or
a nook under the eaves, but it should
be protected from cats and other
marauders.
The black phoebe has the same
habits as its eastern relative, both
as to selection of food and nesting
sites, preferring for the latter pur-
pose some structure of man, as a
shed or, better still, a bridge over
a stream of water, and the pref-
erence of the black phoebe for the
vicinity of water is very pronounced.
One may always be found at a stream
or pool and often at a watering
trough by the roadside.
Careful study of the habits of the
bird shows that it obtains a large
portion of its food about wet places.
While camping beside a stream in
Nye ( California the writer took some
Fic. 18.—Phebe. Length, about 63inches, | Pains to observe the habits of the
black phoebe. The nesting season
was over, and the birds had nothing
to do but eat. This they appeared to be doing all the time. When first observed
in the morning, at the first glimmer of daylight, a phoebe was always found
flitting from rock to rock, although it was so dusky that the bird could hardly
be seen, This activity was kept up all day. Even in the evening, when it
was so dark that notes were written by the aid of the camp fire, the phoebe
was still engaged in its work of collecting, though it was difficult to under-
stand how it could catch insects when there was scarcely light enough to see
the bird. Exploration of the stream showed that every portion of it was
patrolled by a pheebe, that each one apparently did not range over more than 12
or 138 rods of water, and that sometimes two or three were in close proximity.
The number of insects destroyed in a year by the black phoebe is enormous.
Fortunately, the examination of stomachs has supplemented observation in
the field, and we ure enabled to give precise details. Of the 333 stomachs ex-
amined, every one contained insects as the great bulk of the food. Only 15
contained any vegetable food at all, and in no ease was it a considerable part
of the contents of the stomach. The insects eaten were mostly wasps, bugs,
and flies, but many beetles also were destroyed.
Useful beetles belonging to three families amount to 2.8 per cent of the
food. Other beetles of harmful or neutral species reach 10.5 per cent. Wasps,
the largest item of the food, were found in 252 stomachs and were the whole
contents of 15. The average for the year is 35 per cent. Parasitic species
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 23
were noted, but they were very few. Ants were found in 48 stomachs, and for
largest item, were found in 97 stomachs and completely filled 3. They consti-
tute the most regular article in the black phebe’s diet. The maximum con-
sumption occurs in April, 64.3 per cent. The black phcebe well merits its title
of flycatcher.
Moths and caterpillars amount to 8.2 per cent of the food. They were found
in 72 stomachs, of which 51 contained the adult moths and 28 the larve or
caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with adults. This is one of the
few birds studied by the writer that eats more moths than caterpillars, for as
a rule the caterpillars are largely in excess, Flycatchers, taking their food
not appear. Dragon flies were eaten to some extent, and these illustrate the
fondness of ‘the species for the neighborhood of water.
The vegetable matter eaten consisted chiefly of small wild fruits of no
economic importance.
Another pheebe inhabiting the Western States and breeding as far north as
Alaska is the Say phebe.* Investigation of its food was based on the éxam-
ination of 86 stomachs, and while none were available for the months when
insects are most numerous, the bird proved to be one of the most .exclusively
insectivorous of the family. That it takes a few useful insects can not be
denied, but these are far outnumbered by the harmful ones it destroys, and the
balance is clearly in favor of the bird. Its vegetable food amounts to only 2
per cent and is made up of a little wild fruit, seeds, and rubbish,
THE KINGBIRDS.
The well-known eastern kingbird (fig. 19) is essentially a lover of the
orchard, though groves and eae Ades of forests were probably its original habi-
tat. It breeds in the States east of the Rocky Mountains, and less commonly in
the Great Basin and on the Pacific coast. Its hostility to hawks and crows is
proverbial, and for this reason a family of kingbirds is a desirable eu
4 poultry yard. On one occasion in the knowledge of the writer a as y ‘ a
attacked a brood of young turkeys was pounced upon and so severe SA a
by a pair of kingbirds whose nest was near by that the ie ter ae eo
glad to escape without his prey. Song birds that nest near the kingbir
Similarly protected. ;
The fcniea is largely ge ease It - pee rae as deen
the wing a large part of its food. It does not, i
method OE hanes but picks up some insects from trees se hota a bale
descends to the ground in search of myriapods or thousand leg - este.
Complaint against the species by both professional le ee eae
been that it preys largely upon honeybees. One bee raiser fea ns Aes eee
the kingbirds of feeding upon his bees, shot a number near _ oe
the stomachs of the birds were examined by an expert entomologist,
e found. ; :
ae pleareion 665 stomachs collected in various ey oe Eimetstt
was made by the Biological Survey, but only 22 were gegen ) Stave pega
of honeybees. In these 22 stomachs there were in all 61 Gece ae iootaaly
51 were drones, 8 were certainly workers, and the remaining
her identified. 3 7
vane ee ae constitute the great bulk of the aye Heda let es
Species, largely beetles—May beetles, click beetles ea See ae
known as wire worms), weevils, which prey upon fruit an ioe sir cea
of others. Wasps, wild bees, and ants are conspicuous ae . ns ee
ae Gullo Ir hope at oduor ea tire eaiens a te aomaea ena
and other bugs, also are eaten. é
ined. res feta robber flies—insects which prey largely upon other
2 3 tyrannus.
5 Sayornis sayus. @ Tyrannus ty
94 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
insects, including honeybees, and which are known to commit in this way
extensive depredations. It is thus evident that the kingbird by destroying these
flies actually does good work for the apiarist. The 26 robber flies found in the
stomachs may be considered more than an equivalent for the 8 worker honey-
bees already mentioned. A few caterpillars are eaten, mostly belonging to the
group commonly known as cutworms, all the species of which are harmful.
About 11 per cent of the food consists of small native fruits, comprising some
380 common species of the roadsides and thickets, as dogwood berries, elder-
berries, and wild grapes. The kingbird is not reported as eating cultivated
fruit to an injurious extent, and it is very doubtful if this is ever the case.
In the Western States the Arkansas kingbird® is not so domestic in its habits
as its eastern relative, preferring to live among scattering oaks on lonely hill-
sides, rather than in orchards about ranch buildings. The work it does, how-
ever, in the destruction of noxious insects fully equals that of any member of
its family. Like other flycatchers, it subsists mostly upon insects taken in
midair, though it eats a number of grasshoppers, probably taken from the
ground. The bulk of its food consists of beetles, bugs, wasps, and wild bees.
Like its eastern representative, it has been accused of feeding to an injurious
extent upon honeybees. In an examination of 62 stomachs of this species,
great care was taken to identify every insect or fragment that had any resem-
blance to a honeybee; as a result,
30 honeybees were identified, of
which 29 were males or drones
and 1 a worker. These were con-
tained in four stomachs, and were
the sole contents of three; in the
fourth they constituted 99 per cent
of the food. It is evident that the
bee-eating habit is only occasional
and accidental, rather than ha-
bitual; and‘it is also evident that
if this ratio of drones to workers
were maintained, the bird would be
of more benefit than harm to the
apiary.
The Cassin kingbird * has a more
southerly range than the Arkansas
flycatcher. Examination of a num-
ber of stomachs shows that its food
habits are similar to those of others
of the group.
' Three points seem to be ee
Fic. 19.—Kingbird. Length, about 84 in . established in regard to the food o:
: eth. about Aa tmehes. ‘the Kingbinds—(1) that about 90
fot per cent consists of insects, mostly
injurious species; (2) that the alleged habit of preying upon honeybees is much
less prevalent than has been supposed, and probably does not result in any
great damage; and (8) that the vegetable food consists almost entirely of
wild fruits which have no economic value. :
All of the kingbirds are of the greatest importance to the farmer and fruit
grower, as they destroy vast numbers of harmful insects, and do no appreciable
damage to any product of cultivation.
NIGHTHAWK.
The nighthawk, or bull-bat,™ breeds throughout most of the United States and
Canada, and winters in South America. It is strictly insectivorous, and hence
does no damage to crops. The only charge that can be made against the bird
Hae ae destroys some useful insects, but these are greatly in the minority in
ood.
Nighthawks are so expert in flight that no insects can escape them. In their
cagnacious mouths they sweep up everything from the largest moths and dragon
flies to the tiniest ants and gnats, and in this way sometimes gather most
remarkable collections of insects. Several stomachs have contained 50 or more
different kinds, and the number of individuals ran into the thousands.
38 Tyrannus verticalia, % Tyrannus vociferans,
% Ohordeiles virgintanae :
Some Common Birds Useful io the Farmer. 25
Nearly a fourth of the birds’ total food is composed of ants. These insects
are generally annoying and often very injurious, especially on account of their
damage to stored products and because of their habit of fostering destructive
plant lice. More than a fifth of the nighthawk’s food consists of June bugs,
dung beetles, and other beetles of the leaf-chafer family. These are the adults
of white grubs, noted pests, and even as adults many members of the family
are decidedly harmful.
Numerous other injurious beetles, as click beetles, wood borers, and weevils,
are relished. True bugs, moths, flies, grasshoppers, and crickets also are
important elements of the food. Several species of mosquitoes, including the
transmitter of malaria, are eaten. Other well-known pests consumed by the
nighthawk are Colorado Potato beetles, cucumber beetles, rice, clover-leaf, and
cotton-boll weevils, bill bugs, bark beetles, squash bugs, and moths of the cotton
worm.
Nighthawks are much less numerous than formerly, .chiefly because of
wanton shooting. They are given full legal protection almost everywhere, and
citizens should see that the law is
obeyed. The bird is far too useful
and attractive to be persecuted.
THE WOODPECKERS.
Five or six species of woodpeck-
ers are familiarly known through-
out the eastern United States, and
in the West are replaced by others
of similar habits. Several species
remain in the Northern States
through the entire year, while
others are more or less migratory.
Farmers are prone to look upon
woodpeckers with suspicion. When
the birds are seen scrambling over
fruit trees and pecking holes in “/
the bark, it is concluded that they
must be doing harm. Careful ob-
servers, however, have noticed
that, excepting a single species,
these birds rarely leave any con-
spicuous mark on a healthy tree,
except when it is affected by wood- Fig. 20.—Hairy woodpecker. Length, about 9
boring larve, which are accurately inches.
located, dislodged, and devoured
by th odpecker. :
Two. ef he baer iew woodpeckers, the hairy -woodpecker ™ (fig. 20) and the
i i i t of the
er,” including their races, range over the greater par
ie Noa any differ chiefly in size, their colors being practically the
Same. The males like those of many other woodpeckers, are distinguished by
a scarlet patch on the head. An examination of many stomachs of these eee
Species shows that from two-thirds to three-fourths of the food consists o
insects, chiefly noxious kinds. Wood-boring beetles, both adults and larvee, are
conspicuous and with them are associated seed ae aon oe ec
; in i at liv
that burrow into trees. Next in importance are the ants a Lyi
i d eaten in great quantities.
wood, all of which are sought by woodpeckers and :
; i imber, for if they find a small spot o
Many ants are particularly harmful to timber, 6
i they enlarge the hole, and, as
decay in the vacant burrow of a wood borer, ae
i i i tinue to eat away the wood unti e
their colony is always on the increase, con ee eee
whole trunk is honeycombed. Moreover, they are no see eA nye
1 ursue their career of destruction unmo
her ae Re been with beaks and eee tua fein eee
i r them. It is thus evident that woo ;
eae ee oe To them more than to any other agency we owe the preser.
vation of timber from hordes of destructive insects.
5% Dryobates villosus. 57 Dryobates pubescens.
296 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
One of the larger woodpeckers familiar to everyone is the flicker, or golden-
winged woodpecker™ (fig. 21), which is generally distributed throughout the
United States from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains. There it is
replaced by the red-shafted flicker,” which extends westward to the Pacific.
ae The two species are as nearly iden-
tical in food habits as their respec-
tive environments will allow. The
flickers, while genuine woodpeck-
ers, differ somewhat in habits from
2PM as 5 YA ¥. the rest of the family, and are fre-
Yo x, LE NOSTRILS EA WANA ANNE quently seen searching for food
KUO sce ) i upon the ground. Like the downy
and hairy woodpeckers, they feed
upon wood-boring grubs and ants,
but the number of ants eaten is
much greater than that eaten by
the other two species. Of the flick-
ers’ stomachs examined, three were
completely filled with ants. Two
of these contained more than 3,000
individuals each, while the third
contained fully 5,000. These ants
belong to species which live in the
ground. It is these insects for which
the flicker searches when it runs about in the grass, although some grasshoppers
also are then taken. The flicker’s habit of pecking holes in buildings sometimes
greatly annoys its human friends, and it is particularly noticeable in the Cali-
fornia species. Observation has shown that the object of the work is to obtain
shelter for the winter. In the East most of the flickers are migratory, and only a
few remain North where shelter is necessary. These generally find a safe retreat
in the hollow tree in which they nested. In California, however, where the
birds do not migrate, trees are not
so abundant as in the East, and
consequently buildings are brought
into requisition, and in them holes
are drilled, usually under the eaves,
where snug nights’ lodgings are
found. Often a dozen holes may
be seen in one building. Barns or
other outbuildings are usually se
lected, though churches sometimes
have been used.
The red-headed woodpecker ® (fig.
22) is well known east of the Rocky
Mountains, but is rather rare in
New England. Unlike some of the
other species, it prefers fence posts
and telegraph poles to trees as
a foraging ground. Its food there-
fore naturally differs from that of
the preceding species, and consists
largely of adult beetles and wasps
which it frequently captures on the
wing after the fashion of flycatch- ped)
CHUA e ee eee i ee Fig, 22.-—Red-headed woodpecker. Length,
about 94 inches.
the beetles are a number of pre
dacious ground species und some
tiger beetles, which are useful insects. The red-head has been accused
of robbing nests of other birds, and of pecking out the brains of young birds
and poultry; but as the stomachs showed little evidence to substantiate this
charge, the habit probably is exceptional.
The vegetable food of woodpeckers is varied, but consists largely of small
fruits and berries. The downy and hairy woodpeckers eat such fruits as dog-
—— aes ~ rR
=~
Fic. 21.—F licker. Length, about 123 inches,
58 Oolaptes auratus. %° Colaptes cafer collaris.
°° Melanerpes erythrocephalus.
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 27
wood and Virginia creeper and seeds of poison iy suma
shrubs. The flicker also eats a great many small frites aid ie eae hoe
siderable number of shrubs and weeds. None of the three species is much
given to eating cultivated fruits or crons. The red-head has been accused of
eating the larger kinds of fruit, as apples, and also of taking considerable corn
Stomach examinations show that to some extent these charges are substan-
bird is fond of mast, especially beechnuts, and when i j
remains north all winter. aa a Sie ce core
Woodpeckers apparently are the only agents which can successf i
odE 4 ully: cope w
certain insect enemies of the forest, and, to some extent, with eee foie
trees also. For this reason, if for no other, they should be protected in every
possible way. :
THE CUCKOOS.
Two species of cuckoos are common in the United States east of the Great
Plains, the yellow-billed cuckoo @ (fig. 23) and the black-billed cuckoo,” and in
the West a relative of the yellow-bill, the California cuckoo,* ranges from
Colorado and Texas to the Pacific coast. While the two species are quite dis-
tinct, the food habits of the yellow-bill and the black-bill do not greatly differ
and their economic status is practically the same.
Examination of 155 stomachs has shown that these species are much given
to eating caterpillars, and, unlike most birds, do not reject those covered with
hair. In fact, cuckoos eat so 4
mInany hairy caterpillars that the
hairs pierce the inner lining of
the stomach and remain there,
and often when the stomach is
opened it appears to be lined
.. With a thin coating of fur.
~ An examination of the stom-
achs of 46 black-billed cuckoos,
taken during the summer months,
showed the remains of 906 cat-
erpillars, 44 beetles, 96 grass-
hoppers, 100 sawflies, 30 stink-
bugs, and 15 spiders. In all
Probability more individuals
than these were represented, but ‘
their remains were. too badly Fie. 23.—Yellow-hilled cuckoo. Length, about
broken for recognition. Most of 12 inches.
the caterpillars were hairy, and
many of them belong to a genus that lives in colonies and feeds on the leaves of
trees, including the apple tree. One stomach was filled with larve of a cater-
pillar belonging to the same genus as the tent caterpillar, and possibly to that
Species. Other larvee were those of large moths, for which the bird seems to
have a special fondness. The beetles were for the most part click beetles and
weevils, as well as a few May beetles. The sawflies were contained in two
stomachs, one of which held no less than 60 in the larval stage.
Of the yellow-billed cuckoo, 109 stomachs (collected from May to October)
were examined. They contained 1,865 caterpillars, 93 beetles, 242 grasshoppers,
37 -sawflies, 69 bugs, 6 flies, and 86 spiders. As in the case of the black-billed
cuckoo, most of the caterpillars belonged to hairy species and many of them
were of large size. One stomach contained 250 American tent caterpillars ;
another 217 fall webworms. The beetles were distributed among several fami-
lies, all more or less harmful to agriculture. In the same stomach which con-
tained the tent caterpillars were 2 Colorado potato beetles; in another were
3 goldsmith beetles, and remains of several other large beetles. Besides the
ordinary grasshoppers were several katydids and tree crickets. The sawflies
were in the larval stage. in which they resemble caterpillars so closely that
they are commonly called false caterpillars by entomologists. The bugs con-
sisted of stinkbugs and cicadas, or dog-day harvest flies, with the single excep-
tion of one wheel bug, which was the only useful insect eaten.
® Cocoyzus erythropthalmus,
entalis
6 Coccyzus americanus. e
83 Coccyzus amer
28 Farmers’ Bulletin 630.
BOBWHITE.
No bird is better known to country residents than the bobwhite® (see illus-
tration on title-page). The bird’s cheery calls the year round form part of
the most pleasant associations of country life, and its neat form and har-
monious coloration, and especially its confiding habits, make it a general
favorite.
Any bushy fence row serves as a retreat for its nest, or for winter shelter, and
weed-covered fields are its favorite feeding places. Weed seeds form more
than half the total food and include those of all the worst weed pests of the
farm. Among them may be mentioned crab, cockspur, witch, and foxtail
grasses, sheep sorrel, smartweed, bindweed, lamb’s-quarters, pigweeds, corn
cockle, chickweed, charlock, partridge pea, beggar lice, nail grass, rib grass, rag
weed, and Spanish needles.
Acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and pine seeds make up about 2.5 per cent of
the food, and wild fruit about 10 per cent. The fruits include berries of pal-
metto, smilax, wax myrtle, mulberry, sassafras, blackberries and raspberries,
rose haws, cherry, sumac, grapes, sour gum, blueberries, honeysuckle, partridge
berry, and a number of others. The bobwhite feeds to a slight extent upon
buds and leaves, including those of yellow and red sorrel, cinquefoil, and
clover.
Grain forms scarcely more than a sixth of the food, and most of it is taken
during winter and early spring when nothing but waste grain is available.
The habit of gleaning this after the harvest is beneficial to the farm, for
volunteer grain is not desirable, especially where it serves to maintain certain
insect and fungus pests. Although most of the grain and seed crops grown upon
the farm are represented in bobwhite’s dietary, no significant damage can be
attributed to the bird.
Animal food, chiefly insects, composed nearly a sixth of the bird’s subsistence.
From June to August, inclusive, when insects are most numerous, their pro-
portion in the food is about 36 per cent. The variety of insect food is great
and includes a number of the most destructive agricultural pests. Among
them may be mentioned the Colorado potato beetle, 12-spotted cucumber beetle,
bean leaf beetle, squash ladybird, wireworms, May beetles, corn billbugs,
clover leaf weevil, army worm, bollworm, cutworms, and chinch bug.
The food habits of the bobwhite undoubtedly are beneficial and the bird
should be maintained in numbers on every farm. This is not to say that all
shooting should be prohibited, for the bird is very prolific. But its numbers
should not be reduced below what the available nesting sites and range will
support. On the other hand the policy of absolute protection recently adopted
by one of the States is not called for by strictly economic considerations.
* Colinus virginianus.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
RELATING TO THE FOOD HABITS OF WILD BIRDS.
FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT.
The English Sparrow as a Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 493.)
Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man.
(Farmers’ Bulletin 497.)
Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. (Farmers’
Bulletin 506.)
Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 630.)
Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation to Agriculture.
(Farmers’ Bulletin 755.)
The Crow and Its Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1102.)
Canaries: Their Care and Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1327.)
Hleven Important Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 205.)
Propagation of Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 465.)
Food Habits of Seven Species of American Shoal-water Ducks. (Department
Bulletin 862.) :
Economic Value of the Starling in the United States. (Department Bulletin 868.)
Wild Ducks and Duck Foods of the Bear River Marshes, Utah. (Department
Bulletin 936.)
Food Habits of the Swallows. (Department Bulletin 619.)
Farm Help from the Birds. (Yearbook Separate 843.)
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.
Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. (Farmers’ Bulletin 513, colored
plates.) Price, 15 cents. :
Birds in Relation to the Alfalfa Weevil. (Department Bulletin 107.) Price,
15 cents.
mae Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. (Department Bulletin 280.)
Price, 5 cents. .
The Crow and Its Relation to Man. (Department Bulletin 621.) Price, 15 cents.
The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin 15.)
Price, 10 cents. 5 , ;
Birds of a Maryland Farm. (Biological Survey Bulletin 17.) Price, 20 cents.
Birds of California in Relation to the Fruit Industry. (Biological Survey
Bulletin 34, Pt. 2.) Price, 40 cents. : ;
Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer. (Biological Survey
Circular 61.)- Price, 5 cents. .
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE.
Secretary of Agriculture. _____----------- Henry C. WALLACE.
Assistant Secretary ener C. W. PuGstry.
Director of Scientific Work___------------ BE. D, Batt.
Director of Regulatory Work__—~~.---~------
Weather Bureau_______-_----------- ---~-. CHartes F, Marvin, Chief.
Bureau of Agricultural Economics_------- Henry C. Taytor, Chief.
Bureau of Animal Industry_------------— JoHN R. Mouter, Chief.
Bureau of Plant Industry_--------------- Wr11am A. Taytor, Chief.
Forest Service_______-- ----~------------- W. B. GREELEY, Chief.
Bureau of Chemistry_--------- ----------. Watter G. CAMPBELL, .leting Chief.
IBUTCOU OF SOUS so eee eee Mitton WHItTNEY, Chief.
Bureau of Entomology__-_----~---------- L. O. Howarp, Chief.
Bureau of Biological Survey__.---------- E. W. NEtson, Chief.
Bureau of Public Roads__---------------- THomas H. MacDonatp, Chief.
Fixed Nitrogen Research Laboratory___~-. F. G. Corrrety, Director.
Division of Accounts and Disbursements. A. ZAppone, Chief.
Division of Publications_____.____----_--- JoHN L. Cosss, Jr., Chief.
Library_—_ : _... CLARIBEL R. Barnett, Librarian.
States Relations Service__._.--_.____-__-. A. C. Trur, Director.
Federal Horticultural Board___--.--_-__— Cc. L. Martatr, Chairman.
Insecticide and Fungicide Board_________. J. K. Haywoop, Chairman.
Packers and Stockyards Administration___) CHEestreR MorriLu, Assistant to
Grain Future Trading Act pe menieire, the Secretary.
Office of the Solicitor R. W. Wittiams, Solicitor.
This bulletin is a contribution from—
Bureau of Biological Survey_____________. E, W. Netson, Chief.
Division of Food Habits Research__.._ W. L. McAresr, In Charge.
30
WASHINGTON : GOVBRNMENT PRINTING OFFICD : 1923
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